
Oass 
Book 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 

PREPARED FOR USE IN 

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



BY 

/ 
W. C. DOUB, A.B. 

(Stanford University) 

COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 




SAN FRANCISCO 
THE WHITAKER AND RAY COMPANY 

(incorporated) 

1900 



49616 



iLitortip y of Cona>-ft9» 

I SEP 20 1900 

i CopyrigM entry 

SECC^^D COPY. 



L": 






Copyright, 1900 

BY 

W. C. DouB 



A 



^^ 



^ 



ADOPTED 

BEFORE PUBLICATION 

BY THE KEEN COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION 

AND MADE 

THE BASIS OF ALL THE HISTORY WORK 

IN THE 

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS OF 

KEEN COUNTY 



Pubi^ishkr's Notk — Owing to the hurry in getting out this, 
the first edition, the following mistakes have occurred, viz: 
Irine I, page 32, the date 1775 should be 1755. 
Line 28, page 49, the date 1777 should be 1787. 
Line 30, page 49, the date 1777 should be 1787. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY NOTE 5 

PREFACE 7 

EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE 11 

SEVENTH-YEAR WORK 15 

Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America . 15 

Discoveries and Explorations 16 

Disposition of Territory in the New World .... 17 

North American Indians 18 

Origin and Growth of the Thirteen Colonies ... 18 

Colonization of New France 26 

Relation of the Indians and the Colonists . ... 27 
Social and Industrial Conditions of the Colonists in 

1700 27 

French and Indian War 30 

* Institutional Life in the Colonies in 1775 .... 33 

The Revolutionary War 41 

Government During the Revolution, and Prior to the 

Adoption of the Present Constitution .... 46 

The Constitutional Convention of 1787 49 

EIGHTH-YEAR WORK 53 

Government in the United States 53 

V/ashington's Administration 55 

Adams' Administration 60 

Jefferson's Administration 61 

Madison's Administration 63 

Monroe's Administration 65 

John Quincy Adams' Administration ....... 68 

Progress of the United States from 1790 to 1825 . . 69 

Jackson's and Van Buren's Administrations .... 72 

Administrations of Harrison, Tyler, and Polk ... 77 
Administrations of Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, and Bu- 
chanan 79 

Lincoln's Administration „ . 81 

The Political History op the United States from 

1865 TO 1900 ... o .......„,. 95 

Progress of the United States since 1865 o . . ,104 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

The Topical Discussion of American History prepared 
by Superintendent Doub is thoroughly in harmony with 
the spirit of the times. It is a product of the general 
feeling among progressive educators that history should 
cease to be a mere exercise in memory gymnastics, and 
become a genuine study of human life and experience. 
In the grammar school, as well as in the high school or 
the university, history should be so presented that man 
is ever seen to be its real object. It should never for a 
single moment be lost sight of, that, while the right study 
of history affords a training for the reason and the judg- 
ment scarcely rivaled by that gained from any other 
source, yet its chief subject-matter is man in his political 
and other social relations. It is the things which are 
really important in human progress, in the struggle for 
existence, that one wishes to know. Lists of dates, and 
genealogical tables of royal or noble personages, are not 
so helpful to the youth preparing himself for citizenship 
as a knowledge of the institutions of his country and 
state, or even of his county, village, or school district. 

The conviction is deepening, that history cannot be 
best taught through the use of one book. The element 
of comparison is the vital principle of right historical 
study. Even the best single text-book is not so good as 
topical reading in several works. Already this is con- 
ceded to be true for the high school; and surely, within 
proper limits, it is just as true for the lower grades. In 
all departments of the public schools, teachers are making 
the grave mistake of placing before their pupils too weak 



6 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

food. They should serve stronger meat. Teachers under- 
estimate the intellectual capacity of those whom they 
are attempting to lead. Place before the boy or girl 
interesting and really valuable material, though perhaps 
such as is commonly supposed to be attractive only to 
older minds, and it is surprising with what avidity it is 
seized and mastered. 

Without a proper training one cannot hope for the 
best results. To teach history well, one must know his- 
tory. Yet in the grammar and in the elementary schools 
the teacher cannot always be a specialist. Should his 
salary and other conditions not warrant a preparation 
such as he would be glad to obtain, he can always have 
the next best thing. He can provide himself with some 
of the most suggestive helps. The day is past when the 
grammar school teacher's knowledge of history should 
be confined to the meager scraps gathered in a text-book. 
If he cannot have access to a good library, he may, at 
any rate, own one or two standard treatises for constant 
reference in each field of study. Then there are valuable 
professional aids which he cannot afford to do without. 
Thus the Report of the Committee of Seven, Hart's 
Source-Book, and the Old South Leaflets should be in 
every hand. 

George Elliott Howard. 

Staxfokd Uxiversity, 
July 26, 1900. 



PREFACE 

History as now taught in the elementary schools is 
largely a process of memory. The pupil is required to 
devote practically all of the time which is given to the 
subject to the memorizing of dates and events. The 
unity and development of the subject, the causes and 
results of different movements, the influence of past con- 
ditions upon the present, are almost entirely lost sight 
of. When the subject is completed, in place of an under- 
standing of its real scope and significance, there remains 
to the pupil but a mere skeleton of the history studied. 
The few dates and unconnected events which may be 
remembered are practically worthless, either as mental 
training or as preparation for citizenship. American 
history, if properly taught in the elementary schools, 
should be an invaluable preparation for American citizen- 
ship. Without a real understanding of the development 
of our institutions, one is not in a position to vote in- 
telligently upon many of the leading issues of the^.day. 

It is the duty of the public schools to give to this 
republic, as a part of the price of their existence, boys 
and girls possessing a knowledge and understanding of 
the social, industrial, political, and constitutional develop- 
ment of the United States. Because of an understanding 
of the issues of the day, and of a patriotism derived 
largely from an honest study of the important facts of 
our national growth, they will have the moral courage to 
vote and act as their judgment dictates. 

The object of this little volume is to secure a better 
consideration of American history in the elementary 



8 PREFACE 

schools than it receives at the present time. The volume 
has been called " A Topical Discussion of American 
History " because it differs essentially from a mere out- 
line in that most of the important points are discussed 
and summarized. From an examination of the teaching 
of history in the elementary schools, the conclusion has 
been forced upon me, that, notwithstanding the fact that 
at institutes and educational meetings, educators are 
constantly agitating the question of a topical method of 
teaching the subject, and that a number of outlines in 
American history embodying the principles of that 
method have been prepared for use in the elementary 
schools, very little has been done in applying the method. 
This may be due to the fact that the outlines already 
prepared do not meet the actual requirements and needs 
of our schools. As a rule, the references cited are not 
available for the use either of teacher or pupil, and the 
outlines are too meager. In fact, they seem to presume 
that the teacher in the elementary school has had the 
advantage of a college or university training in history 
and historical method. 

In preparing the "Topical Discussion of American 
.JJi^tory" +he constant aim has been to overcome the 
above-mentioned defects. The authorities referred to are 
within the reach of the pupils in the elementary schools. 
The more difficult topics — in fact, nearly all of the sub- 
jects mentioned — have been discussed in such a way as 
to indicate to the pupil and to the teacher their true 
relation and importance in history. In the development 
of each topic, and in the selection of the words used in 
each discussion, there has been a constant regard for the 
age and ability of the pupil, — the manner of treat- 
ment and the words used becoming more difficult as the 
work in the two-years' study of American history pro- 



PREFACE . y 

gresses. Many minor events considered unimportant, 
and which are found in the average orthodox text, have 
been purposely omitted, the object having been to select 
only such topics as have some real bearing on the growth 
of American institutions. 

In working out many of the details of this book, 
valuable assistance has been received from D. W. Nelson, 
city superintendent of the Bakersfield schools, and from 
Charles F. Wright, teacher of history and political science 
in the Kern County High School. Information con- 
cerning any error, as well as any suggestions which will 
make this book more valuable to pupils and to teachers, 
will be thankfully received. 

W. C. DouB, 

Bakersfield, California, 
July 17, 1900. 



EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE. 

I 

Only the following authorities have been referred to 
in this topical discussion: History of the United States, 
California State Series; School History of the United 
States, McMaster; The Colonies, Thwaites; Formation 
of the Union, Hart; Division and Reunion, Wilson, 
the last three mentioned forming a set of books com- 
monly known as Epochs of American History.^ The 
California State History is referred to, not because of its 
value as a text-book, for as a text-book it possesses very 
little merit, but because it is the only text-book on the 
subject which can be legally used in the elementary 
school of California. It is suggested that to meet this 
condition in California, some pupils be requested to pur- 
chase copies of McMaster's History instead of the State 
History, and that a part of the library money be used to 
place copies of McMaster's History and of the Epochs of 
American History in the school library. This plan has 
been tried in Kern County, and it has furnished a suffi- 
cient number of reference books to successfully carry out 
the work in history as outlined in this book, and in the 
other subjects similarly treated. In the country districts 
about one half of the library money has proven sufficient 
to purchase the required reference books in the subjects 
of History, Geography, and Reading. In cities it will be 

^ In case either teacher or pupil desires to make a fuller inves- 
tigation of any subject than is possible from the above-mentioned 
works, the tables of references given at the beginning of each 
chapter in the Epoch Series will prove to be of valuable assistance. 



12 EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE 

found necessary to induce the pupil to purchase some of 
the books. If the State History alone must be used 
much better results will be secured by using this, or a simi- 
lar topical discussion, than can be secured without its use. 

II 

The use of this topical discussion in connection with 
the State History alone should prove quite beneficial; its 
use in connection with McMaster's History should give 
rise to still better results; its use in connection with both 
McMaster's History and the Epochs of American History 
should bring about excellent results. Other histories can 
be used in connection with the work herein outlined with 
equally good results. McMaster's School History of the 
United States and Epochs of American History have 
been specifically referred to because they are being ex- 
tensively used with most beneficial results in the schools 
of Kern County. No book with less merit, however, 
than McMaster's History should be in the hands of each 
pupil, and it will be difficult to secure a history which 
will prove the equal of the Epochs of American History 
for reference in grammar-school work. 

Ill 

A few of the subjects have not been discussed; merely 
a bare outhne has been given. This has been done in 
order to give the pupil an opportunity for securing some 
training in arriving at generalizations with no other as- 
sistance than can be gained from the reading of the 
authorities cited. 

IV 

This topical discussion has been prepared primarily 
for the teacher, but its use in the hands of the pupil will 
be found to be of great value. If the pupil does not pos- 



EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE 13 

sess a copy, he should be required, when a topic is 
assigned, to write out in full the discussion there given, 
and to make a note of the references there cited. This 
should be done in a note-book, and the pupil should 
follow the statement of the topic by a careful summary 
of important facts and material derived from his own 
reading of the authorities mentioned. Pupils who pos- 
sess copies of this book should, nevertheless, keep careful 
note-books embodying the results of their individual 
reading upon different subjects. 

V 

The teacher should take care that no more work be 
assigned for one lesson than the average pupil can thor- 
oughly master. But twenty-eight general topics have 
been given for the two years of work. On some of these 
topics one lesson will be sufficient, others will require for 
their proper consideration ten or more lessons. Under 
no circumstances, however, should the pupil during his 
last two years in the grammar school attempt to do more 
work in history than is herein outlined. 

VI 

The pupil should be required to read all the references 
given if they are available. The discussion of some of 
the topics in this book is quite full, but in no case should 
a pupil be permitted to substitute this discussion for a 
thoughtful reading of the references. 

VII 

It is strongly urged that, some time during the year 
preceding the one in which history is taken up as a sep- 
arate study the pupil be given, as a part of his regular 
work in reading, a history reader consisting of the 



14 EXPLANATORY AND SUGGESTIVE 

biographies of some of the principal men connected with 
American history. In Kern County, Eggleston's First 
Book in American History has been used as a regular 
school reader during a part of the work in the sixth year, 
and the result has been very satisfactory. Hand in 
hand with the training in reading, there has been given 
a good preparation for the study of American history. 

VIII 

The abbreviations used in citing authorities are as' 
follows: 

S.S. History of the United States, Cahfornia State 
Series. 

M. School History of the United States, McMaster. 

E. The Colonies, Thwaites (Epochs of American His- 
tory, Volume L). 

E. II. Formation of the Union, Hart (Epochs of 
American History, Volume 11. ) . 

E. III. Division and Reunion, Wilson (Epochs of 
American History, Volume III.). 



A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 

SEVENTH -YEAR \VORK 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY 
OF AMERICA 

I Increasing Importance of Commerce 

The increasing importance of commerce and navi- 
gation, as shown by the enterprise of Venice, Genoa, 
and Portugal, and the capture by the Turks of the 
overland trade routes to the important trade centers 
of the East, made it necessary for the people of 
western Europe to discover other lines of communi- 
cation, or discontinue their commercial relations 
with the Eastern nations. 

S.S. 9-10; M. 9-10. 

II Invention of the Compass 

The invention of the compass, and improvement 
in ship-building and navigation, made it possible 
for mariners to undertake long sea voyages. Before 
the compass was invented, it was unsafe for ships to 
go far from land, because when the sun or stars were 
hidden by clouds or fog, the sailors could not guide 
the ship in the right direction. 

III Revival of Learning in Europe 

The revival of learning in Europe, and the 
accounts of Marco Polo and other travelers, made 
the people of the West anxious to ascertain the 
shape and extent of the earth's surface. This desire, 



16 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

taken in connection with the increased facilities for 
making long sea voyages, would have led, sooner or 
later, to the discovery of America, even had Columbus 
not been successful in finding the new land. 
S. S. 8-9. 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

Spain, England, France, Portugal, and Holland were 
the nations which took the principal part in exploring 
and settling the New AVorld. Of these nations, Portugal 
made no settlements in North America. Her principal 
colony was Brazil, in South America. 

I Spanish Exploration and Settlement 

Spain explored and settled most of the West 
Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part of the 
United States, Mexico, Central America, and South 
America, except Brazil. The principal Spanish 
explorers were Columbus, De Soto, Balboa, Magellan, 
and Ponce de Leon. 
S.S. 14-15, 20-22; M. 11-17, 19-22; E. 23, 27-31 

II English Exploration and Settlement 

England explored and settled the eastern part of 
North America from Florida to Canada. The prin- 
cipal English explorers were the Cabots, Drake, 
Raleigh, and Gilbert. 
S.S. 23, 25-26, 32-35; M. 14, 26-29; E. 25, 36-37. 

III French Exploration and Settlement 

France explored the larger part of the Mississippi 
Valley and the eastern part of Canada. She settled 



AMERICAN HISTORY 17 

the eastern part of Canada, and established trading- 
posts between New Orleans and the Great Lakes. 
The principal French explorers were Cartier, Denys, 
Champlain, La Salle, and Marquette. 

S. S. 23, 25-30; M. 60-65; E. 32-36. 

IV Dutch Exploration and Settlement 

Holland explored and settled the present state of 
New York. Hudson was the principal Dutch ex- 



plorer. 



S.S. 71; M. 36-39. 



DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW 
WORLD 

Discoverers took possession of the territory in the New 
World in the name of their sovereigns. Thus European 
nations came to base their claims to territory on the 
" right of discovery." It was upon this so-called right 
that France claimed all the territory drained by the 
Mississippi and the St. L.awrence, and their tributaries; 
England, the Atlantic coast from Canada to Florida; 
and Spain, Florida, South America (except Brazil), 
Mexico, the western part of the United States, and most 
of the West Indies. England granted her territory in 
North America to companies and to individuals, at the 
same time establishing crown colonies, which were under 
the direct control of the sovereign. Many of these grants 
extended from " sea to sea," thus in after years giving 
rise to conflicting claims, on account of the overlapping 
of territory claimed by different colonies or countries. 

S.S. 29-35; E. 43, 66-68. 



18 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 

In studying this subject the following topics should 
be emphasized: 

I Mode of Living 

II Tribes 

III Religion 

IV Characteristics of the Indians 

S,S. 16-19; M. 66-73; E. 7-19, 



ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE THIRTEEN 
COLONIES 

I The Southern Colonies, with Special Reference 
TO Virginia 

In order to get a general view of this subject, read 
thoughtfully the following references:^ 

S.S. 56-70; M. 26-35, 54, 57-58; E. 64-91. 

1. Purpose of Settlement and Character of Early Emi- 
grants 

The first settlers of Virginia did not come to 
the New World for the purpose of making it their 
permanent home. Most of them Vv'ere gentlemen 
of leisure, gold-seekers, and fortune-hunters. Af- 
ter securing wealth it was their intention to re- 

^ Bear in mind that the aim of this reading is, not to prepare 
for a recitation, but to give the pupil a general vie^v of the sub- 
ject. It is of the utmost importance, however, and the teacher 
should not fail to require the pupil to faithfully perform this 
work. In order to make sure that the pupil does this work well, 
he should be required to make copious notes while reading, and 
these notes should be read and discussed in class. Give the 
pupil ample time for this reading. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 19 

turn to England. Later, men of wealth, and men 
of the sturdy middle class of England, settled in 
the South for the purpose of making a home for 
themselves and children. For a number of years, 
however, there were many poor people, vagabonds, 
and criminals sent to the Southern Colonies under 
contract. The services of these people were sold 
to the highest bidder, and the terms of the con- 
tract provided that they must work for the party 
purchasing them for a certain number of years, in 
order to repay him. Persons thus sold into tem- 
porary slavery were called "indentured servants," 
and their descendants largely go to make up the 
poor whites of the South. Negro slavery was 
early introduced into all the Southern Colonies, 
and the negroes soon formed a large part of the 
population. 

S.S. 34, 57; M. 31-32; E. 65-66, 69-75. 

2. Leading Men of Early Southern History 

Make a thorough study of the men named be- 
low, because around their lives center the princi- 
pal pohtical facts in the growth and development 
of the Southern Colonies previous to 1700. 

a. Captain John Smith 

S.S. 57-58; M. 31; E. 70-72. 
h. James Oglethorpe 

S.S. 65-67; M. 57-58; E. 258-262. 

c. George Calvert and his son Cecil 

S.S. 60-61; M. 34-36; E. 81-87. 

d. Nathaniel Bacon 

Study Bacon's Rebelhon, with special refer- 



20 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

ence to popular government in Virginia from 
1660 to 1700. 

S.S. 67-69; E. 78-80. 

3. Industrial Life in the Southern Colonies before 1690 
a. Classes of Laborers 

Labor in the household and on the planta- 
tion v/as performed almost entirely by inden- 
tured servants and slaves. The idea was 
gradually growing in the South that manual 
labor was dishonorable and unworthy of free 
men and women. 

M. 33-34; E. 74. 

h. Occupations 

Agriculture was the chief occupation in the 
South. For many years tobacco was the lead- 
ing staple, and was used as a medium of ex- 
change, taking the place of money. Other 
staples were tar, x^itch, resin, lumber, rice, and 
indigo. Unlike the North, the South produced 
but very fev/ of her manufactured articles. 

II New England, with Special Reference to Massa- 
chusetts 

In order to get a general view of this subject, 
read thoughtfully the following references (see note, 
page 18): 

S.S. 36-55; M. 40-53; E. 112-153. 

1. Purposes of Settlement and Character of Emi- 
grants 

The first settlers of New England were men of 
strong character and stern determination. They 
belonged to the sturdy middle class of England, 



AMERICAN HISTORY 21 

and came to the New World to secure religious 
liberty and to establisli permanent homes for 
themselves and their children. The character of 
these settlers shaped the future history of New 
England. For more than 150 years, on all ques- 
tions in which a principle was involved, she 
could not be changed from the position which she 
considered to be right. These stern men and 
women were well fitted to endure the hardships 
of early New England life. 

S.S. 37-38; M. 40-42; E. 114-117. 

2. Leading Men of Early New England 
a. John Winthrop 

_ Study carefully the work of John Winthrop 

in the Massachusetts colony. 

S.S^ 49-50; M. 47; E. 127, 129, 135-138, 156, 

b. Roger Williams in Rhode Island 

^•^im ;«t' ^^- ^^~^°' ^- '^^-^33, 136, 146-149, 
iblj, 165. 

3. Church and State in New England 

In New England the church and state were 
cksely related. At first none but church members 
could hold office or take any part in public affairs, 
i-eople were compelled to attend church on Sun- 

public affairs, and any law not in harmony with 
Its teachings was considered unconstitutional 
In other words, the church was superior to the 
state, and the early settlers of New England were 
doing the very things for which they had so 



22 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

severely condemned the English government. 
There was less religious freedom in New England 
than in old England during the same time. 

M. 48; E. 127-128. 

4. The Town in New England 

In the Southern Colonies the county was the unit 
of local government. County ofhcers were elected 
to transact the business in about the same way as 
they are elected in California and other Western 
States. In New England, however, the county 
was not the unit of local government, at least to 
any great extent. The town took its place. By 
far the larger part of the population lived in 
towns. A large part of the local public business 
was transacted at town meetings, at which all free- 
men had the right to vote. At these meetings 
many questions were decided, and the town officers 
were elected. 

E. 55-57. 

5. The Growth oj New England 

With the exception of Maine, the colony of 
Massachusetts was the parent of the other New 
England colonies. Connecticut, Rhode Island, 
New Hampshire, and Vermont were settled by 
people from Massachusetts, and with the exception, 
in some cases, of a difference in opinion on reh- 
gious questions, these colonies were practically the 
same. The town was the unit of local govern- 
ment, and the members of the law-making body 
of each colony were elected at the town meetings. 

S.S. 43-46; M. 49-51; E. 140-153. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 23 

6. Industrial Life 

a. Classes of Laborers 

There were but few slaves in New England, 
most of the labor being done by freemen who 
owned property. In the Southern Colonies 
those who labored were held in contempt by the 
wealthier classes, but in New England labor 
was considered honorable, and even well-to-do 
and educated men worked on their farms. 

b. Occupations 

The occupations of New England were agri- 
culture, commerce, fishing, and ship-building. 
This section of the country , because of its sterile 
hills and small valleys, was not adapted to the 
extensive cultivation of a few staple products, 
as was the South. Because of this condition 
the people dcA^oted most of their industrial 
efforts toward fishing, commerce, and ship- 
building, becoming in the latter industry fa- 
mous the world over. 

III. The Middle Colonies, with Special Reference to 
Pennsylvania 

In order to get a general view of this subject, read 
thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 

18): 

S.S. 71-80; M. 54-58; E. 195-232. 

1. Purpose of Settlement 

The colony of Pennsylvania was established 
for the purpose of providing a home for the 
Quakers, a religious sect, the members of which 
were being persecuted in England. The other 



24 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

Middle Colonies were founded mainly for commer- 
cial purposes. 

S.S. 73-75; M. 55-56. 

2. William Penn 

Study carefully the work of William Penn in 
Pennsylvania. 

E. 215-217. 

3. Character of Emigrants 

Make a thorough study of this subject, com- 
paring and contrasting the character and aims of 
the first settlers of Pennsylvania with those of 
Massachusetts and Virginia. 

S.S. 73-75; M. 103; E. 221-222. 

4. Rapid Growth of the Colony^ Due to, — 

a. Civil and Religious Liberty 

S.S. 73-75; M. 55; E. 215. 

b. Friendly Relations with the Indians 

S.S. 75; M. 71 -72; E. 216-217. 

c. Social Equality and Brotherly Co-operation 

S.S. 75; E. 224. 

d. Cheapness of Land 

K. 215. 

5. Neiv York Founded by the Dutch 

Do not make a detailed study of this topic. 
Emphasize the events leading to colonization, the 
object of settlement, and the acquisition of the 
colony by the English. 

S.S. 71-72; E. 196-207. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 25 

6. The Town and the County in the Middle Colonies 

In the Middle Colonies, as in the South and in 
New England, the people were practically inde- 
pendent, in so far as local government was con- 
cerned, and also had a voice in making the laws for 
the colony. In some parts of the Middle Colonies 
the town was the unit of local government, while 
in other parts it was the county. The topography 
of the country largely decided this question. If 
the country consisted of a large number of small 
valleys the town was usually the local political 
unit; if it consisted of large valleys, and the soil 
and climate made agriculture the chief occupa- 
tion, the county was, as a rule, the local political 
unit. 

E. 57-58, 203-204. 

7. Industrial Life in the Middle Colonies 
a. Classes of Laborers 

There were but few slaves in the Middle 
Colonies, and, as in New England, labor was 
considered honorable, and most of it was per- 
formed by freeman, who were also property 
holders. 

h. Occupations 

Agriculture was the chief occupation. The 
soil was rich, and the climate allowed a greater 
variety of crops than in the South. Pennsyl- 
vania, also, early began the manufacture of 
leather, paper, and cloth. 
S.S. 78-79,83; E. 224-226. 



26 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

COLONIZATION OF NEW FRANCE 

In order to obtain a general idea of this subject, read 
thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 18): 

S.S. 91-96; M. 76-82; E. 246-257. 

France established permanent settlements along the 
eastern coast of Canada and along the St. Lawrence 
River. She also established military and trading posts 
in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley. The 
French, however, seemed unfitted to build up colonies 
in the New AVorld. The French colonists seldom raised 
enough food products to meet their own requirements, 
and were often compelled to import foodstuffs from the 
mother country. The French colonists devoted most of 
their time to trading with the Indians. Quebec, on the 
St. Lawrence River, was the largest and most important 
city. 

I Champlain 

Study carefully the work of Champlain in New 
France. 

S.S. 91-92; E. 246-247. 

II Explorations and Forts of the Mississippi Valley 

S.S. 92-93; M. 60-65, 76, 79; E. 247-249. 

It will be seen from the study of this topic that 
France based her claim to the Mississippi Valley on 
discovery and exploration, and emphasized it by the 
burying of military plates upon which were engraved 
statements of her claim to this territory. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 27 

RELATIONS OF THE INDIANS AND THE COL- 
ONISTS 

Do not attempt a detailed study of the various Indian 
wars and massacres. Too much time is often wasted on 
this subject. Stress should be placed on the general re- 
lations of the Indians to the colonists, and upon the way 
in which those relations affected colonial development. 

I Alliance of the Western Tribes with the French 

Observe how this alliance made the Iroquois of 
New York enemies of the French, and how it pre- 
vented the latter from pushing their settlements 
toward those of the English colonists on the Atlantic 

coast. 

M. 60-62; E. 246. 

II Relations with the English 

1. In General 

E. 17-19. 

2. Pequod War 

S.S. 44; M. 71. 

3. King Philip^s War 

E. 170-172. 

4. In Pennsylvania 

S.S. 75; E. 216-217. 

SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE 
COLONIES IN 1700 

At this point clearly fix in mind what constitutes the 
social life, the industrial life, and the political life of the 
people. 



28 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

The amusements of the people, the social relations be- 
tween the various classes of society, treatment of neigh- 
bors, customs of dress, daily manner of speaking and 
acting toward others, and all those things which interest 
or amuse men in a social way, constitute the social life of 
a people. Those things which men do to make a living, 
as the raising of crops, and the carrying on of commerce, 
manufacturing, and mining, constitute the industrial life 
of a people. Voting, nominating men for office, serving 
as public officials, discussing and taking an interest in 
public questions, and advocating a change in the laws or 
a change in the form of government constitute the politi- 
cal life of a people. 

This subject should be given careful consideration. 
Spare no effort to obtain a thorough understanding of the 
every-day life of the people at this period. Compare the 
social and economic conditions of the people living in 
1700 with the conditions under which they live at the 
present time. 

I Social and Industrial Conditions in the Southern 
Colonies ^ 
1. Land and People 

E. 96-98. 

1 The sub-topics given in connection with this subject do not 
fall logically under the heads " Social" and "Industrial." The 
topics are identical with those given in the Epochs of American 
History. It would be good training for the pupil to have him 
arrange this material under its proper heads. A clear conception 
of the conditions in the colonies is necessary to a proper under- 
standing of colonial history. The pupil should devote suflicient 
time to this subject to enable him to discuss, in well- written 
compositions, the social and industrial condition of the people in 
1700 in the Southern, in the Middle, and in the New England 
colonies. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 29 

2. Slavery and Servants 

E. 98-100. 

3. Middle and Upper Classes 

E. 100-101. 

4. Occupations 

E. 102-104. 

5. Navigation Acts 

E. 104-106. 

6. Social Life 

E. 106-109. 

7. Political Life and Conclusions 

E. 109-111. 

II Social and Economic Conditions in New England ^ 

1. Land and People 

E. 179-181. 

2. Social Classes and Professions 

E. 181-184. 

3. Occupations 

E. 184-186 

4. Social Conditions 

E. 186-188. 

5. Moral and Religious Conditions 

E. 188-190. 

6. The Witchcraft Delusion 

E. 190-192. 

^ See note, page 28. 



30 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

7. Political Conditions 

E. 192-194. 

Ill Social and Economic Conditions in the Middle 
Colonies ^ 

1. Geographical Conditions 

E. 218-220. 

2. People 

E. 220-222. 

3. Social Classes 

E. 222-224. 

4. Occupations 

E. 224-226. 

5. Social Life 

E. 226-229. 

6. Intellectual and Moral Conditions 

E. 229-231. 

7. Political Conditions and Conclusions 

E. 231-232. 



FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 

In order to secure a general view of this subject, read 
thoughtfully the following references (see note, page 18): 
S.S. 98-110; M. 76-92; E. II. 22-41. 

I Causes of the War 

While the immediate cause of this war was the 
conflict of claims on the part of the French and the 

^ See note, page 28, 



AMERICAN HISTORY 31 

English to territory in the Ohio Valley, it was not 
the fundamental or underlying cause. For a num- 
ber of years before this war began, France and 
England had both foreseen that there must be 
a struggle to determine which nation should be- 
come the predominant power in the New World, 
and they were maturing their plans for that inevi- 
table conflict. The war was to determine whether 
North America should be French or English in 
ideas, government, and religion. 

S.S. 98-100; M. 76-85; E. II. 23-24. 

II Relative Strength of the Parties 

E. II. 27-28. 

III Campaigns 

Do not try to remember the details of the cam- 
paigns, but study carefully the purpose, the scope, 
and the result of each one. While studying these 
campaigns, follow carefully, by the use of maps, the 
movements of the armies, and it would be well to 
have maps drawn occasionally, without reference to 
a book, locating the operations of each campaign. 

1. Campaign against Fort Duquesne 

This campaign includes Braddock's defeat in 
1755, and the capture of the fort by Forbes in 
1758. 

S.S. 104-105; M. 87-88; E. II. 31-33. 

2. Campaign against Louisburg 

S.S. 106; M. 89; E. 11. 33. 

3. Campaign against Quebec 

This campaign includes the attempts to reach 



82 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

Quebec in 17T5 by way of Crown Point and Ticon- 
deroga, and its capture by Wolfe in 1759. 

S.S. 103, 106-108; M. 88-89; E. II. 34. 

IV Results 

1. Geographical Results 

England secured all of Canada, and all of the 
territory east of the Mississippi, except a small 
strip of land at the mouth of that river. Spain 
secured all of the territory west of the Mississippi, 
from the Isthmus of Panama to the present 
northern boundary of the United States. 

S.S. 109-110; M. 90-91; E. II. 34-37. 

2. Political Results 

a. On English Influence in North America 

This war decided that English customs, 
ideas, and institutions should forever predomi- 
nate in North America. 

E. II. 39. 

6. On the English Colonists 

The war gave the colonists a feeling of unity 
and strength, and a military experience that 
proved of great value as a preparation for the 
Revolutionary War; it gave England an excuse 
for taxing the colonists to defray a portion of 
the expense of the war, and thus brought on the 
dispute which caused the Revolution. 

E. II. 40-41. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 33 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES IN 

1775 

In every community of people, however low in the 
scale of civilization, may be found the rudiments of these 
organizations or institutions; viz., the church, or religion; 
the school, or education; the state, or government; busi- 
ness, or industrial life; and society, or social life. All of 
the efforts put forth by any people must be along one or 
more of these lines. In civilized countries these institu- 
tions are plainly marked in every community, and each 
individual in the community bears certain relations to 
all of these organizations or institutions, and is useful or 
otherwise, as a member of society, in proportion to his 
activity in these five directions. To illustrate: In the 
ideal community, each person takes an active part in 
some organization that advocates his views on religion, 
he interests himself in the educational affairs of the com- 
munity, he takes an active part in politics, follows some 
occupation successfully, and contributes to the happiness 
and culture of the people in whose society he lives .^ 

I Origin of Colonial Institutions 

Place much emphasis upon the fact that the social, 
the political, and the industrial ideas and life of the 
colonists were derived from England. The colonies 
did not originate their political, social, or religious 
ideas. They brought them over from England. The 

^ Too much care cannot be taken by the teacher to fix definitely 
in the mind of the pupil the meaning of institutional life. The 
pupil should be required to point out many examples of these 
five institutions in his own neighborhood. Let him select some 
prominent man in the community, state, or nation, and show his 
relation to religion, education, government, business, and society. 
He will then be prepared to successfully study institutional life in 
the colonies. 



34 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

English in America were like the English in Europe. 
The colonists were proud of the history of England, 
proud to be called Englishmen. They spoke with 
reverence of England as the Mother Country. 

While it is true that colonial institutions and 
American institutions were derived from England, the 
fact should not be overlooked that the conditions in 
the colonies, and later the conditions in the United 
States, brought about a modification of those institu- 
tions. There was an aristocracy in the colonies, 
especially in the South, but the primitive condition 
of the country and the common dangers and hard- 
ships made the division between the upper and the 
lower classes less marked than in England. The set- 
tlements being separated and exposed to the constant 
danger of attack from the Indians, the ability for 
local self-government and the desire to control their 
own political affairs were stimulated and developed. 
The freedom of the woods and the freedom of their 
lives developed a strong relf-reliance and a dislike 
for restraint in religious and political matters. 

The above facts are necessary to a correct un- 
derstanding of the history of the United States, 
and hence at this point in the study of history it is 
necessary to understand clearly that colonial and 
American institutions have been derived from Eng- 
land, and are similar in a general way to English 
institutions, and it is also necessary to understand 
clearly that these transplanted institutions have been 
modified by the conditions which have existed and 
still exist in the New World. 

S.S. 81-82; E. II. 5-10. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 35 

II The Five Institutions in the Colonies 
1. Government in the Colonies 
a. Local Government 

In New England the religious zeal, the 
severe climate, the short, rapid rivers, and the 
hostility of the Indians and neighboring 
French led the people to settle in towns. As 
each citizen was entitled to take part in the 
town meetings, a great impulse was given to 
popular government. Here the people exer- 
cised the right of regulating their own local 
affairs from the beginning. 

In the South the mild climate, the long and 
broad rivers, the friendly Indians, and large 
plantations caused the people to live widely 
apart. This comparatively isolated condition 
had the effect of concentrating local political 
power in the hands of a few men, usually the 
owners of the large plantations. Although in 
both sections of the country the spirit of in- 
dividual freedom grew, perhaps, with equal 
rapidity, the principles of local government 
were worked out more fully in the New England 
towns than anywhere else in the colonies. All 
local questions which involved the welfare of 
the town, including the election of all town 
officers, were decided at a general town meet- 
ing, where each male citizen was entitled to a 
vote. 

S.S. 47-49, 68-69; E. II. 11-13. 

h. Colonial Governments 

Colonial governments may be divided into 
three classes, on the basis of the manner of 



86 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

selecting the governor. In the charter govern- 
ment the people chose the governor. In the 
proprietary government the proprietor selected 
him, and in the royal government he was ap- 
pointed by the king. With this difference, 
however, the people enjoyed the same rights 
in all the colonies. In each colony there was 
an assembly chosen by the people, and al- 
though the governors and assemblies often 
disagreed on matters of legislation, the assem- 
blies usually had the decisive voice in making 
nearly all of the internal laws of the colonies. 

S.S. 81-82; M. 105-107; E. 58-61; E. II. 13-17. 

(1) Charter Government 

A charter government was one estab- 
lished by a written contract between the 
king and the colonists, stating the share 
which each should have in the govern- 
ment of the colony. This charter or 
contract could not be changed legally 
without the consent of both parties. 

S.S. 41-44, 61; M. 29-30, 32, 34, 46; E. 
60-61, 66-69, 72, 125-127; E. II. 13-17. 

(2) Proprietary Government 

A proprietary government was estab- 
lished when the king granted a large tract 
of land to some individual, who, by the 
terms of the grant, acquired the right to 
organize a colony and appoint the gov- 
ernor. 

S.S. 74; M. 105-106; E. 82, 89, 215. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 37 

(3) Royal Government 

In the case of a royal colony, the king 
appointed a governor and issued to him 
all instructions for the management of 
the colony. The royal governments were 
directly under the control of the king, 
and not under that of Parliament. 
S.S. 81-82; M. 105-106; E. 67-69, 174- 
176, 271-277; E. II. 15. 

c. Colonial Unions 

From their foundation there were many 
forces at work in the colonies which encouraged 
the formation of a union. Their common origin 
t and interests, their trovibles with the Dutch and 

with the Indians, and the disposition on the 
part of England to interfere with their liberties, 
all tended to draw them more and more closely 
together. 

S.S. 49; M. 51-52; E. 154-157, 269-271; E. 11. 
28-30. 

2. Industrial Conditions in the Colonies 
a. Classes of Laborers 

No great change had taken place in the 
laboring population since 1700. The South 
still depended largely upon slaves and inden- 
tured servants; the Middle Colonies depended 
more upon free labor; and the New England 
Colonies depended almost entirely upon the 
free labor of their inhabitants, and labor was 
not regarded as a disgrace. 

h. Occupations 

In the South, agriculture, centering around 



38 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

the production of enormous quantities pf rice 
and tobacco for the European markets, was the 
only industry. In the Middle Colonies, the 
people were engaged in commerce, as well as in 
agriculture. In New England, the people de- 
voted their attention to farming, fishing, com- 
merce, and ship-building. 

c. Absence of Manufacturing Industries 

This was due, in the South, to the nature of 
the country, which made agriculture on a large 
scale so profitable. It was due in the Middle 
and Northern Colonies to the restrictive system 
of England, as manifested in her Navigation 
Laws, which prevented or discouraged one 
colony from sending its surplus products to 
another colony when they might just as well 
have been imported from England. 

d. Absence of Specialized Artisans and Mechanics 

Everything required on the farm was made 
in one way or another by the farmer or his 
sons. Division of labor in the colonies and 
specialization of industry were to be developed 
in the future. 
S.S. 82-83; M. 101-104; E. 278-282; E. II. 

18-21. 

3. Social Life in the Colonies 

In general there was an absence of city life. 
Places which could be considered of any impor- 
tance, such as Boston, New York, Pliiladelphia, 
and Charleston, were mere provincial towns. 
"The largest of these were mere collections of a 
few hundred houses ranged along streets, none of 



AMERICAN HISTORY 39 

which were sewered, and few of which were paved 
or Hghted." ^ Travel was infrequent, especially 
from one colony to another, and the citizens of 
one colony had little opportunity for coming into 
touch with those even in the neighboring colonies. 
The roads were poor and the means of transpor- 
tation very inadequate. Few people possessed 
wheeled vehicles, and those in use were of a very 
clumsy description. Along the coast and rivers 
it was possible for the people to travel from 
one place to another in boats and sailing-vessels, 
but inland the bulk of travel was on horseback 
or afoot. In the South the better class of people 
were aristocratic, but their isolation made them 
very hospitable. They were always ready for 
showing the welcome and hospitality for which 
their large, roomy, brick or stone mansions were 
so well fitted. To the northward the tastes of the 
people were simpler, and quite in keeping with 
their sturdy, industrious, and democratic life. 
S.S. 83-90; M. 93-105; E. 280-282; E. II. 18. 

4. Education in the Colonies 

In the greater part of New England some 
public provision was made for the teaching of the 
elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic, 
while the larger towns provided sufficient instruc- 
tion for entrance into the local colleges, but the 
schools were very poor. In the Middle Colonies 
there was, on the whole, very little pubhc in- 
struction. In Virginia children received instruc- 
tion from private tutors, or perhaps from the 
clergyman of the parish, provided their parents 

1 M. 99-100. 



40 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

were able to pay for such instruction. Georgia 
and the CaroHnas were without any pubUc educa- 
tional institutions. The people in the far South 
depended upon colleges in England and in the 
North. While there were a number of colleges 
in existence, — Yale, Harvard, King's (Columbia), 
New Jersey (Princeton), Pennsylvania, and 
William and Mary, — the work which they gave 
was very narrow in scope, and of the grade of 
work done in the present high school. The pro- 
fession of law — hitherto of little importance — 
was beginning to occupy a position of con- 
siderable prominence. In fact, it was the only 
profession which could be compared with the 
ministry. 

E. II. 18. 

5. Religion in the Colonies 

While in New England the sturdy Puritans 
were still conservative, as regards religious affairs, 
they were becoming more and more liberal. The 
Congregational Church, with the full support of 
the people, was practically the only church, save 
in Rhode Island, where freedom of religion had 
long prevailed. The clergymen of New England 
went to make up the leading, educated, and influ- 
ential class of the North, and tended to dominate 
the life of the times until the church and state 
became separated at the time of the Revolution. 
In Pennsylvania, religious freedom prevailed, 
while in Maryland all tax-payers were by law 
compelled to support the Church of England. 
Farther south, the Established Church was grad- 
ually becoming less important; the ministers 



AMERICAN HISTORY 41 

were often easy-going men, and without the moral 
strength required of them, if they wished to be 
important and influential men. 

S.S. 85. 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

Causes 

At the close of the French and Indian War in 
1763 the English colonists in America were loyal 
English subjects. They were proud of their English 
origin; proud of English history, considering it part 
of their own inheritance; proud to be called English- 
men; and spoke with reverence of England as the 
Mother Country. In less than fifteen years from this 
date, the same colonists were in open rebellion, carry- 
ing on war against England. There were vital and 
fundamental causes which brought about this change 
of feeling, and these causes were the causes which 
led to the Revolution. 

1. English Control of Colonial Commerce 

In order to control the commerce of the colonies, 
England passed trade laws known as the Naviga- 
tion Acts. The Navigation Acts were funda- 
mentally connected with the causes of the Revolu- 
tion. These laws extended from 1651 down to the 
Revolution. Their object was to secure to Eng- 
lish merchants a monopoly of the carrying trade of 
England and her colonies. In some cases small 
duties were levied on exports and imports, but 
these duties were mainly levied in order to secure 
the better enforcement of the Navigation Acts, and 



42 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

not in order to raise money for the English gov- 
ernment. The hiws regulating colonial commerce 
were not rigidly enforced until after the French 
and Indian War. 

A careful study should he made of these laws 
with regard to their general scope, their evasion 
by the colonists, and their general effect on com- 
merce. Bear in mind that, although these laws 
irritated the colonists, they did not offer any 
serious objection to them until Writs of Assistance 
were issued, enabling English officers to enter 
private houses and search for smuggled goods. 
S.S. 51, 113-114; M. 108; E. II. 17, 19, 44-58, 66. 

2. Taxation ivithout Representation 

Distinguish carefully between the Navigation 
Acts and taxation for the purpose of raising rev- 
enue, particularly direct taxation. The colonists 
would, perhaps, have submitted to the Navigation 
Acts and to the nominal taxes which some of 
them imposed. They would not, however, pay 
the taxes levied for purposes of revenue, and 
especially direct taxes, unless they had some voice 
in voting such taxation. They did not object to 
the amount of the tax, but to the principle in- 
volved. Englishmen, by more than a century of 
struggle, had secured the right to vote taxes 
through their representatives. The colonists con- 
sidered themselves Englishmen with all the rights 
of Englishmen, and hence they refused to submit 
to taxation without representation. In other 
words, the Revolutionary War was brought about 
because Englishmen in America were denied the 
rights enjoyed by Englishmen in England. And 



AMERICAN HISTORY 43 

it should be remembered that these rights were 
' denied colonists in America, not by the people of 
England, but by the King and his Ministers. 
The common people of England, like the colo- 
nists, were opposed to the levying of taxes where 
the parties taxed had no voice in the voting of 
them. When William Pitt became Prime Minis- 
ter, he represented the English people on these 
questions, and was a stanch friend of the colonists. 
It would probably be safe to say that a majority 
of the common people of England opposed the 
Revolutionary War from beginning to end, and 
were glad that the colonists resisted the unjust 
taxation, because they believed that if the King 
could unjustly tax the colonists, he might attempt 
to overthrow the constitutional liberties of Eng- 
lishmen in England. 

a. The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress 
S.S. 114-118; M. 114-115; E. 11. 48-53. 

h. The Townshend Acts, the Tea Tax, and Other 
Revenue Acts 
S.S. 119-124; M. 117-120; E. II. 53-58. 

3. The Five Coercive Acts 

S.S. 124; M. 120-121; E. II. 59-60. 

4. The First Continental Congress 

S.S. 124-127; M. 121-122; E. 60-63. 

II Campaigns 

In order to secure a general view of the subject, 



44 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

read thoughtfully the references given below (see 
note, page 18): 

S.S. 130-175; M. 126-154; E. 11. 70-101. 

After the British under Gage were compelled to 
leave Boston they adopted three general plans of 
campaign. The first was to separate New England 
from the other colonies by occupying New York City 
and the valley of the Hudson, the second was to cap- 
ture Philadelphia and overrun the Middle Colonies, 
and the third was to land an army in Georgia, move 
northward, and subjugate the colonies one by one. 

1. Concord and Lexington 

S.S. 132-137; M. 129-131. 

2. The Siege and Capture of Boston 

S.S. 132-137; M. 129-131. 

3. The Campaign to Separate New England from the 

Other Colonies 

This campaign, on the part of the English, was 
a failure. They captured and occupied New York 
City until the end of the war, but the army under 
Burgoyne, which had for its object the capture of 
the valley of the Hudson, was compelled to sur- 
render to the Americans. This was the last attempt 
made by the English to separate New England 
from the other colonies. 

The results of the surrender of Burgoyne were 
important. It not only defeated the attempt of the 
English to separate New England from the other 
colonics, but induced France to acknowledge Amer- 
ican independence, and to make a treaty with the 



AMEEICAN HISTORY 45 

Americans, which bound her to assist their cause 
with money, ships, and men until that indepen- 
dence should be acknowledged by the other 
nations of the world. 

S.S. 155-158; M. 139-141; E. II. 85. 

2. The Campaign against Philadelphia and the Mid- 
dle Colonies 

The English were partially successful in this 
campaign. Washington was driven from New 
York, New Jersey was overrun, and Philadelphia 
was captured. The English, however, could hold 
no more territory than that actually occupied by 
their armies. When the English received the 
news of the treaty with France they evacuated 
Philadelphia, and after the indecisive battle of 
Monmouth, closely followed by Washington, they 
hurried on to New York City to defend that 
place against the French fleet. 

S.S. 146-154; M. 135-139, 141-142. 

5. Campaigns against the Southern Colonies 

From an English standpoint this campaign was 
partially successful. Savannah was captured, and 
Georgia and part of South Carolina were overrun. 
Several American armies were utterly destroyed. 
But when the inefficient Gates was superseded by 
Greene the tide turned in favor of the Americans. 
At King's Mountain and at the Cowpens small 
British forces were utterly destroyed. The in- 
decisive battle of Guilford Courthouse so weakened 
the British army that Cornwallis, with Greene in 
pursuit, retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina. 
With the exception of Charleston and Savannah, 



46 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

Greene compelled the British to evacuate all of 
South Carolina and Georgia. Meanwliile Corn- 
wallis marched north and fortified Yorktown. 
Here he was attacked hy the combined French and 
American forces, and compelled to surrender, 
October 19, 1781. Cornwallis' surrender practi- 
cally ended the war. 

S.S. 163-172; M. 144-146; E. II. 88. 

Ill Results 

England acknowledged the independence of the 
American colonies; they were given control of the 
territory extending from the Atlantic to the Mis- 
sissippi, and from the Great Lakes to Florida; 
England secured the right to navigate the Missis- 
sippi; the Americans obtained the right to fish on 
the Newfoundland Banks, and the republican spirit 
received a remarkable stimulus throughout the 
world. 

S.S. 173; M. 149-152; E. II. 95-101. 



GOVERNMENT DURING THE REVOLUTION, AND 
PRIOR TO THE ADOPTION OF THE PRESENT 
CONSTITUTION 

The central government, which controlled the general 
affairs of the country during the Revolution, was vested 
in the Continental Congress, and the colonial governments 
were changed to state governments. During the latter 
part of the Revolution a written constitution, called the 
Articles of Confederation, was adopted. The government 
created by this constitution conducted the general affairs 
of the country until the present constitution came into 
effect. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 47 

The first Continental Congress met in 1774, and the 
second in 1775. The Congress which controlled affairs 
to the close of the Revolution may well be termed the 
Continental Congress. The people from the various 
states elected delegates to this Congress. It was never 
formally granted power from any source, but the people 
recognized the fact that there must be some general 
authority, and its acts were usually complied with. 

I State Government 

When the colonies declared their independence, 
there were no longer any legal colonial governments. 
The colonial governments were created by the author- 
ity of England, and when that authority was abolished 
these governments ceased to exist. At the suggestion 
of Congress the states adopted written constitutions 
consistent with the Declaration of Independence. 
These writtten constitutions mark the beginning of 
the present state governments. 

M. 155; E. II. 80-82. 

II Central Government 

1. Under the Continental Congress 

S.S. 124-125; M. 121-122, 128-129; E. II. 60-63, 

73-80. 

2. Under the Articles of Confederation 

a. The Northwest Territory and the Ordinance of 
1787 

This is very important, as forming the basis 
of all territorial government in the United 
States. The fact should be emphasized that 
this document, providing as it did for the terri- 



48 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

torial organization of the public domain lying 
north of the Ohio and west of Pennsylvania, 
and forever prohibiting slavery or involuntary 
servitude therein except as a punishment for 
crime, occupies a place in American political 
development second only to the Federal Con- 
stitution. 
S.S. 179-180; M. 159-162; E. II. 107-109. 

b. The Defects of the Confederation 

The government created by the Articles of 
Confederation, which, although drawn up by 
the Continental Congress in 1777, did not go 
into effect until 1781, proved very inadequate. 
Its leading defects were, — 

(1) The lack of an executive body to enforce 

the laws of Congress. 

(2) The absence of a judicial body to settle 

disputed points of law. 

(3) The limited powers granted to the legis- 

lature. 

The Congress created by the Articles 
of Confederation could not levy taxes or 
regulate commerce, — both of which are 
the necessary powers of a strong cen- 
tral government. As a result of this 
inefficient control of national affairs, the 
credit of the United States became very 
poor among foreign nations, paper money 
became almost worthless, the commerce 
of the states was almost destroyed, riots 
took place in some of the states, and 
property interests became unsafe. Be- 
cause of the above weakness in the Arti- 



AMERICAN HISTORY 49 

cles of Confederation, the people generally 
desired a stronger central government. 
S.S. 179-180; M. 155-156; E. II. 102- 
119. 

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787 

The constitutional convention is distinctly an Ameri- 
can institution, and the one which framed the present 
Constitution of the United States is by far the most im- 
portant one which has ever been held in America. The 
pupil and teacher should study carefully the work of this 
Convention, and as far as possible enter into the spirit 
of its proceedings. 

I Events Leading to the Convention 

Since the close of the Revolution, Washington, 
Hamilton, and other leading statesmen of America, 
had been urging the necessity of establishing a cen- 
tral government with powers sufficient for the con- 
trol of all national affairs. As the general condition 
of the states became more and more unsettled and 
unsatisfactory, and property interests became en- 
dangered, men of affairs everywhere were anxious 
for a strong, stable government. In order to revive 
the rapidly declining commerce of the states, due 
largely to the fact that each state levied a different 
rate of import duty, Virginia issued an invitation 
to a few of her sister states to send delegates to a 
convention to be held at Annapolis in February^ 

^J7 1717. This convention recommended that all the 
states send delegates to a new convention, to meet 

^■^%^ in Philadelphia in May, 171^7, "to take into con- 
sideration the situation of the United States," and 
make provisions for a stronger central government. 



50 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

II The Constitutional Convention 

This Convention, which met at Philadelphia, May 
25, 1787, numbered among its members the ablest 
statesmen in America. Here were to be fomid nearly 
all the men who had taken a prominent part in 
American affairs during the fifty preceding years. 
These men framed a constitution which has endured 
for more than one hundred years, and which has 
answered the requirements of a nation that has ex- 
panded beyond the fondest dreams of any of those 
who took part in the Constitutional Convention. 
While the Convention was called for the purpose of 
amending the Articles of Confederation, its members 
did not believe this feasible, and they at once began 
work on a new constitution. 

1. Leading Men of the Convention 

Study briefly the work of the following men: 
Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, Madison, El- 
bridge Gerry, Robert Morris, and Charles Pinckney. 
S.S.; M.; E. II. (See indexes.) 

2. Proceedings of the Convention 

Though the questions discussed were intricate 
and the interests of the states often conflicting, 
the proceedings were marked by calm deliberation. 
The questions on which the Convention found it 
difficult to agree were those concerning the nature 
of the national government, representation in 
Congress, and control of commerce. 

Some of the members of the Convention favored 
making the states practically independent; others 
favored the creation of a centralized government 
similar to the present republic of France, iii which 
the powers of the states would be restricted to purely 
local affairs. It was finally decided to delegate 



1 



AMERICAN HISTORY 51 

to the national government all powers necessary 
to the control of national affairs, but the states 
were to retain all powers not specifically granted 
to the national government. This left to the 
states sufficient powers for the control of all in- 
ternal affairs. 

The smaller states desired equal representation 
in both houses of Congress, while the larger states 
contended that the representation in both houses 
should be according to population. The disagree- 
ment on this point was so emphatic that for a 
while it looked as though the Convention would 
adjourn without accomplishing the object for 
which it had met. This question was finally 
settled by giving each state equal representation 
in the Senate and basing the representation in 
the House on population. For the purpose of 
representation and direct taxation, three fifths of 
the slave population was to be counted. 

The third point of disagreement was on the 
national control of commerce. The commercial 
states were in favor of placing the control of com- 
merce entirely in the hands of the national govern- 
ment. The agricultural states wished to retain 
the power of controlling commerce, and the 
Southern States desired the free importation of 
slaves. It was finally agreed that the national 
government should control commerce, but the im- 
portation of slaves was not to be interfered with 
prior to 1808. 
S.S. 182-186; M. 165-168; E. II. 121-128. 

3. Sources of the Constitution 

It is supposed by many that the Constitution 



52 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

of the United States was created by the Constitu- 
tional Convention. Even Gladstone has referred 
to it as the greatest document ever struck off at 
one time by the hand of man. This idea as to 
the origin of the Constitution is not correct. The 
poHtical ideas contained in the Constitution were 
being developed by the colonial governments and 
colonial unions for more than a century before its 
adoption. Great political wisdom on the part of 
the members of the Convention was shown in 
formulating these ideas into a practical constitu- 
tion and in adding new ones. The Convention is 
entitled to great credit for this, but it should not 
be assumed that its members created these ideas. 
M. 168-169] E. II. 124-125. 

4. General Features of Government Provided for in the 

Constitution 

The Constitution created three departments of 
government, each, in a general way, independent 
of the other. The departments are, — The legis- 
lative, or law-making department, consisting of 
two Houses, a Senate and a House of Representa- 
tives; the executive, or law-executing department, 
now consisting of a President, the President's 
Cabinet, ministers, postmasters, and other officers; 
and the judicial, or law-interpreting department, 
now consisting of a Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, 
District Courts, Circuit Courts of Appeal, and a 
Court of Claims.^ 

1 The fact should be brought out here that the Constitution is 
a mere skeleton, which, since its adoption, has been clothed with 
flesh and blood through Congressional legislation and the decisions 
of the Supreme Court. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 53 

EIGHTH -YEAR W^ORK 

GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES' 

In the city, county, state, and nation, government is 
divided into three departments, — legislative, executive, 
and judicial. In the state and in the nation the legisla- 
tive department consists of two houses. 

Government is divided into three departments for the 
purpose of preventing an abuse of power on the part 
of officials, and for the purpose of securing a maturer 
consideration of laws, both in their making and execu- 
tion. If the same body of men made the laws and exe- 
cuted them, and had the power to say whether they were 

^ Before beginning this year's work in history proper, the 
pupil should have a general knowledge of government in the 
United States. Do not attempt to hold in mind many details, — 
as the salaries, the names, and the minor powers and duties of 
the various officials, — but have clearly fixed in mind what con- 
stitutes the legislative, executive, and judicial departments of 
the city, county, state, and national governments. The pupil 
should be able to state how the members of each department are 
elected, and the general powers and duties connected with each 
department. He should understand why it is necessary for gov- 
ernment to be divided into three separate fields, and what advan- 
tages are secured, in national and state government, by having 
two houses in the legislative department. 

The pupil should devote no more time to this subject than 
will be required to understand the general features of government 
as outlined in this note, and under no circumstances should this 
time exceed more than one school month, as the remainder of 
the time will be required for the work in history. 

In studying this topic, use Duvall's Civil Government Simpli- 
fied (The Whitaker and Kay Company, San Francisco) . The Con- 
stitution of the United States and some good civil government 
should be continually referred to. 



54 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

in conflict with constitutions or other laws, they v/ould 
very likely abuse their privileges, and they might even 
attempt to overthrow popular government. History 
contains so many proofs of this fact that the people of 
the United States insist that law-making, law-enforcing, 
and law- judging shall each be done by a different body 
of men. Aside from preventing an abuse of power and 
an attempt to overthrow popular government, this method 
secures better services in each case. A body devoting 
its entire time either to law-making, law-executing, or 
law- judging will do better work than if it attempts to 
perform all the functions of government at the same 
time. 

The legislative department is divided into two branches 
in order to secure a maturer consideration of laws. One 
house serves as a check on the other, and thus tends to 
prevent hasty discussion and hasty action. A proposed 
law which must pass two houses will usually receive a 
more thorough consideration than it would if required to 
pass but one legislative body. The members of that 
body which is usually termed the lower branch of the 
legislature are always elected by the direct vote of the 
people, and, as a rule, this is true of the upper branch. 
The members of the upper branch of the national legis- 
lature, however, are elected by the legislatures of the 
several states. . The original object of this was to have 
the states represented in the Senate as political units. 
Since the formation of political parties, however, the 
election of Senators is decided by the dominant political 
party of a state, and, consequently, the original object 
which their election by the legislature was intended to 
fulfill is no longer secured. 

The chief executive officers of the city, county, state, 
and nation are elected by the direct vote of the people. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 55 

In theory the President of the United States is elected 
indirectly by the people, but in practice it amounts to a 
direct vote. The judicial officers of the nation are ap- 
pointed by the President of the United States and con- 
firmed by the United States Senate. The judicial officers 
of cities, counties, and states are usually elected by a 
direct vote of the people. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 

In order to obtain a general idea of the events of this 
administration, read carefully the references given below 
(see note, page 18): 

S.S. 190-205; M. 197-209; E. II. 137-164. 

I Organization of the New Government 

The important work of putting the machinery of 
the new government into operation devolved upon 
Washington and Congress. 

1. Organization of the Executive 

The Constitution does not provide for the 
President's Cabinet. It was seen, however, that 
the President would require assistance in enforcing 
the laws of the United States, and Congress pro- 
ceeded to create various executive departments 
under the control of the President. The secretaries 
of these departments constitute the President's 
Cabinet. The number of Cabinet officers has been 
increased from time to time. 

S.S. 192-193; M. 198; E. II. 143-145. 

2. Organization of the Judicial Department 

The Supreme Court was established by the 
Constitution, and Congress was given power to 



66 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

organize such inferior courts as might be required 
from time to time. It estabhshed Federal courts 
inferior to the Supreme Court in the following 
order: Circuit Courts, District Courts, Court of 
Claims, and Circuit Court of Appeals. 
S.S. 193; M. 197; E. 11. 145-146. 

II Legislation 

1. Tariff, or Import Duties 

In order to secure revenue for the new govern- 
ment, Congress at once proceeded to levy import 
duties. During the discussion of the bill for this 
purpose, the question as to whether one of the 
main objects of import duties should be the pro- 
tection of American industries was first brought 
before the American people. 

S.S. 191-192; M. 197; E. II. 146-147. 

2. Financial Legislation 

The new government found the national 
treasur}^ empty and the credit of the United 
States among foreign nations almost worthless. 
Alexander Hamilton was made Secretary of the 
Treasury and brought forward a plan for placing 
the financial affairs of the government on a firm 
foundation. This plan proved him to be one of 
the ablest financiers in the United States. His 
plan was as follows: 

a. A shght increase in the duties laid by the 

first tariff. 

b. An excise or internal tax to be placed on 

distilled liquors. 

c. The funding of the national debt. 

The old bonds of the nation had fallen to 



AMERICAN HISTORY 57 

twenty-five per cent of their face value. New 
United States bonds were to be issued for the 
total face value of the old. 
d. The assumption of state debts. 

Debts contracted by the states during the 
Revolution were to be assumed and paid in full 
by the national government. 
e. Establishment of a United States Bank. 

The management of the bank was to be 
private, but the United States was to be a large 
shareholder, reserving the right of examining 
into its financial condition. 

After much discussion the different portions 
of Hamilton's plan were adopted, with the result 
that confidence and credit were at once restored, 
and business resumed a normal condition. 
S.S. 194; M. 198-201; E. 11. 147-151. 

Ill Origin of American Neutrality in European 

Affairs 

In 1793 war broke out between France and Eng- 
land. The majority of the people of the United 
States was in favor of assisting France. To do this 
meant the destruction of American commerce and 
war with the EngUsh and the Indians along the 
frontiers of the United States. It also meant that 
the United States should be involved in European 
struggles which did not affect American affairs. 
The time, therefore, had come when the United 
States must decide whether she would meddle in 
European affairs not concerning her and which must 
often involve a useless loss of life and property, or 
whether she would remain neutral. Washington 
foresaw the vast importance of this decision, and 



58 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

after mature deliberation announced that the policy 
of the United States should be non-interference 
in European affairs. This decision has marked 
Washington as a statesman of the highest rank. 
The people all over the United States, in mass meet- 
ing and through the press, were urging the govern- 
ment to assist France, but Washington held fast to 
his purpose, and was finally sustained by Congress. 
Thus was born ''American Neutrahty," and the 
United States has ever held steadfastly to that prin- 
ciple. The importance to the United States of this 
principle or unwritten law can hardly be overesti- 
mated. It has saved this nation from many a 
bloody and useless war, and has permitted it to 
develop its natural resources unmolested by Euro- 
pean quarrels and conflicts. The United States 
under Washington established the unwritten law 
that she should not interfere in the affairs of Europe 
which did not concern her, and thirty years later, 
under Monroe, she established the unwritten law 
that no European nation should interfere with strictly 
American affairs unless directly concerned. 
M. 206-208; E. II. 158-160. 

IV The Rise of Political Parties 

Political parties in the United States had their 
real origin during Washington's administration. 
They began with the difference of opinion on the 
part of the people and statesmen of the United States 
as to the nature of the new government. Washing- 
ton, Hamilton, and Adams were the leaders of those 
who believed that the constitution should be loosely 
interpreted; that is, that the new government should 
exercise not only the powers specifically granted to 



AMERICAN HISTORY 59 

it by the constitution, but that it should also assume 
such impHed powers as might be necessary to carry 
out those powers specifically delegated to it. They 
also believed that the government should be con- 
trolled by the wealthier classes. Jefferson and 
Madison were the leaders of those who believed that 
the constitution should be strictly construed, — that 
Congress should assume no implied powers. They 
did not believe that the government should be con- 
trolled by the wealthier classes. They had faith in 
the common people, and believed that the affairs of 
government could be safely intrusted to them. 
Property qualification as a test for voting has since 
been abolished, and to-day, in this respect^ the ideas 
of Jefferson prevail, though he himself, in a measure, 
became a convert to the loose construction of the 
constitution. Washington, Hamilton, Adams, and 
their followers became known as the Federal Party, 
and Jefferson and his party were called the Anti- 
Federal or Republican party. 

S.S. 200-201; M. 197-205; E. 11. 155-157. 

V Invention of the Cotton-Gin 

In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton-gin. 
This machine has had more influence on the political 
and industrial history of our country than any other 
American invention. It made cotton the leading 
product of the South, and increased a thousand-fold 
the value of slave labor, in the work of separating 
the seeds from the cotton. 

S.S. 204-205; M. 195-196. 



60 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION 

In order to get a general idea of the events of this ad- 
ministrationj read carefully the following references (see 
note, page 18): 

S.S. 206-210; M. 209-215; E. II. 164-175. 

I Breach with France 

The Jay treaty with England prevented a war 
between the United States and that nation and gave 
to England valuable commercial rights. France 
was irritated at the United States for not assisting 
her in her war with England in 1793, and this treaty, 
favorable as it was to England, still further exaspe- 
rated her. For a while diplomacy seemed unable to 
avert a war between the United States and France, 
and war had actually begun on the sea, but the uni- 
form success of the American navy and a change of 
government in France caused the latter nation to 
open diplomatic relations, by which the war was 
averted. 

S.S. 207-208; M. 210-213; E. II. 166-168. 

II The Alien and Sedition Acts 

The firm stand taken by the Federalists against 
the insolence of France made President Adams and 
the Federalists very popular with the people; but 
the passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws brought 
them suddenly into great disfavor. The Alien Act 
gave the President power to deport from the United 
States any foreigners whom he considered dangerous 
to the country. The Sedition Act gave the President 
and the officers of the government the right to im- 
prison those who opposed the measures of the gov- 
ernment or spoke with disrespect of its officers. The 



AMERICAN HISTORY 61 

Sedition Act was aimed against the press, and was 
the first and last attempt of the national government 
to interfere with its freedom. 

S.S. 208-209; M. 211-212; E. II. 168-170. 

III The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 

The Alien and Sedition Laws were fiercely attacked 
by the Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison. 
This opposition took definite shape in the legisla- 
latures of Virginia and Kentucky, where it was 
resolved that if a national law did not meet the ap- 
proval of a state, the law might be held null and 
void in that state. These resolutions are of great 
importance, because they were the first definite ex- 
pression of the doctrine of state's rights as opposed 
to national authority. 

S.S. 209; M. 212; E. 11. 170-171. 

IV Causes of the Fall of the Federalist Party 

E. 11. 173-175. 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 

In order to get a general idea of the events of this 
administration, read carefully the following references 
(see note, page 18): 

S.S. 211-218; M. 215-228; E. II. 176-198. 

Jefferson was the first Anti-Federalist or Republican 
President. The success of the Republican party was due 
in part to the unpopular laws of Adams' administration, 
but the main cause of its success was the fact that 
Jefferson represented the rising democracy of the United 
States. He believed that the masses of the people were 



bZ A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

capable of self-government, while the Federalists believed 
that the wealthy and educated classes should control the 
government. No party advocating these ideas of the 
Federalists ever again secured control of national affairs. 

I The Purchase of Louisiana 

During the administrations of Washington and 
Adams, Jefferson had advocated a strict construction 
of the constitution, but in the purchase of Louisiana 
he gave a looser construction to the constitution 
than the Federalists had ever dared to make. 
S.S. 214; M. 218-219; E. 11. 185-187. 

II European Interference with American Commerce 

From 1803 to 1815, France and England were 
almost continuously at war. Each nation tried to 
injure the other by destroying its commerce. In 
order to do this, each would declare the ports of the 
other to be in a state of blockade, although they 
were unable to make such blockade effective; and 
each claimed the right to take as prizes all merchant 
vessels trading with the enemy in violation of the 
commercial regulations which each had issued. 
This policy, if carried out, would have resulted in 
the destruction of American commerce. The United 
States maintained, however, that a neutral state had 
a right to trade freely with either of the nations at 
war, unless her ports were actually blockaded. From 
1803 to 1809, the dispute on this point between the 
United States and England and France was almost 
continuous; and on several occasions it came very 
near involving the United States in war. In fact, 
it would have done so had it not been for the 
weak attitude of President Jefferson. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 63 

Jefferson tried to injure first England and then 
France by having Congress pass, first, an act forbid- 
ding the importation of goods from England or her 
colonies, and later another act preventing the send- 
ing of goods from the United States to any foreign 
nation. These laws were called the Non-Importa- 
tion Act and the Embargo Act. 

S.S. 216-217; M. 224-231; E. 11. 191-198. 

MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 

In order to obtain a general idea of the work of this 
administration, read carefully the following references 
(see note page 18): 

S.S. 219-232; M. 233-240; E. II. 200-222. 

I. The Congress of 1811 

The Congress of November 4, 1811, marks a new 
epoch in American history. Very few of the states- 
men who controlled affairs during and for a quarter 
of a century following the Revolution were now 
members of the national legislature. Statesmen of 
a younger generation had come into power. They 
represented the young and rising democracy of 
America, and especially of the West. They were 
full of hope and strength, believed in the future 
greatness of the United States, and were humiliated 
and angered at the continuous insults offered this 
nation by France and England. From the first they 
were determined to end this humihation, even though 
compelled to resort to war. The question with them 
was, Against which nation should war be declared? 
England and France were almost equally guilty. 
S.S. 219-221; M. 230; E. II. 203-205. 



64 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

II. The War op 1812, or the War for Commercial 
Independence 

1. Causes 

The causes of this war were interference with 
American trade and impressment of American 
seamen. As Great Britain was the greater offender, 
war was declared against her, though the feehng 
against France was bitter because of her inter- 
ference with American commerce. 

S.S. 221-222; M. 231; E. II. 205-206. 

2. The War on Land 

In this war the Americans were, as a rule, un- 
successful in their campaigns on land. The sol- 
diers were untrained, and the officers, frequently 
owing their appointments to political reasons, 
were generally incompetent. Neither nation, how- 
ever, was successful in invading the territory of 
the other. The two most notable land events of 
the war were the capture of Washington by the 
British and the disastrous defeat of an army of 
British veterans at New Orleans by General 
Jackson. 

S.S. 223-228; M. 233, 235, 238; E. II. 209-210, 
212-214. 

3. The War on the Ocean 

Although, at the beginning of this war, the 
Americans had but twelve vessels as against Eng- 
land's twelve hundred, the American navy suc- 
ceeded in winning a series of brilliant victories, 
and often against great odds. Because of Eng- 
land's superiority in the number of ships, most 
of the American vessels were finally either driven 



AMERICAN HISTORY 65 

from the sea or blockaded in the harbors of the 
, United States. Perhaps even more important 
than the work of the regular navy was the injury 
which American privateers did to the commerce 
of England. 
S.S. 228-229; M. 234-236; E. II. 210-212. 

4. Results 

The points of dispute which caused the war 
were not mentioned in the treaty of peace. The 
treaty provided f-or the restoration of the con- 
quests of both parties, and arranged for the settle- 
ment of boundary disputes and other minor 
points. 

But the main result of this war was the com- 
mercial independence of the United States, and 
never since then has any nation interfered with 
American commerce or attempted the impress- 
ment of American seamen. The destruction of 
American commerce caused the birth of American 
factories, for during the war the people of the 
country were compelled to rely upon home 
industry for their manufactured goods. The 
naval success of the Americans won the respect 
and the admiration of the world. 
S.S. 229-230; M. 239; E. II. 218-222. 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 

In order to obtain a general idea of the work of this 
administration, read carefully the following references 
(see note, page 18): 

S.S. 233-239; M. 259-265; E. II. 231-244. 



66 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

The opposition on the part of the leaders of the 
Federahst party to the war of 1812 was the death-blow 
of that organization. During Monroe's administration 
there was scarcely any discussion of party pohtics, — so 
little, in fact, that the period has been called the '' Era of 
Good Feeling." Itr was characterized by wonderful in- 
dustrial progress, and a rapid growth in the idea of 
national unity. The influence of the nation abroad was 
rapidly increasing. 

I Decisions of the Supreme Court 

The Supreme Court, in a series of important de- 
cisions, firmly established the supremacy of the 
national government, and in many cases specifically 
defined the limits of the state governments. 
E. II. 234-236. 

II Missouri Compromise 

The Missouri Compromise had its origin in the 
desire of the free and the slave states to each prevent 
the other from securing a larger number of repre- 
sentatives in the United States Senate. 

The Northern States, having a larger population 
than the Southern, would always have a majority in 
the House of Representatives. The Southern States, 
knowing this, were determined to have control of as 
many votes in the Senate as the Northern States, and 
thus be in a position to prevent any legislation in- 
jurious to the slavery interests. In order to retain 
this control a slave state must be admitted into the 
Union with every free state. This required that the 
territory included in the Louisiana Purchase should 
be half slave and half free. The North was de- 
termined that it should be all free, and when the 



AMERICAN HISTORY 67 

bill for the admission of Missouri came before Con- 
gress threats of dismiion were freely made by the 
South. It was finally settled by a measure in Con- 
gress known as the Missouri Compromise. The 
terms of this Compromise were: 

(1) Maine should be admitted as a free state, and 

Missouri as a slave state. 

(2) The Louisiana Purchase should be divided by 

the parallel of 36° 30', and in all territory 
north of the line, excepting Missouri, slavery 
should be forever prohibited 
S.S. 235; M. 275-276; E. II. 236-241. 

Ill The Monroe Doctrine 

About 1815 Russia announced that she claimed 
the Pacific Coast from Alaska down to the 51st par- 
allel, and that no foreign vessel could approach 
within 100 miles of the shore. It was her evident 
intention to shut the United States out from the 
Pacific Coast. John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of 
State, entered a vigorous protest against these de- 
signs of Russia, in which he stated that neither 
North nor South America was subject to further 
European colonization. Between 1810 and 1822 
all of the Spanish- American colonies in North and 
South America, taking advantage of the weakened 
condition of Spain, threw off the Spanish yoke and 
established independent republics, which v/ere recog- 
nized by the United States as independent powers. 
These republics included Mexico and all of South 
America, save Brazil, which still belonged to Portugal. 
In 1815 nearly all of the European powers except 
England formed what is known as the Holy Alli- 
ance, their object being to perpetuate monarchical 



68 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

government and to assist Spain in the recovery of 
her lost possessions. Great Britain proposed that 
the United States combine with her against this 
Holy Alliance. The United States declined to act 
in concert with Great Britain, but President Monroe, 
at the suggestion of Adams, included in his annual 
message to Congress a statement known as the 
Monroe Doctrine. This statement defined the atti- 
tude of the United States on the question of European 
colonization in the New World and European inter- 
ference with American republics. The doctrine has 
ever since been adhered to by the United States, and 
is in substance as follows: 

(1) European nations will not be permitted to 

establish any new colonies in America or to 
add any more territory to those already 
existing. 

(2) European nations will not be permitted to in- 

terfere with the internal affairs of American 
republics. 
The Monroe Doctrine was the logical result of the 
principle of American Neutrality established by 
Washington. 

SS. 236-237; M. 262-265; E. II. 241-244. 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION 

In order to obtain a general idea of this administra- 
tion, read carefully the following references (see note, 
page 18): 

S.S. 240-245; M. 297-300; E. II. 248-262. 

All of the candidates for President in 1824 were Repub- 



AMERICAN HISTORY 69 

licans, there being no other organized political party. 
Most of the national legislation during this administra- 
tion was influenced by the personal aims and ambitions 
of the various statesmen, and had for its main object the 
support or defeat of the aspirations of some possible 
candidate for the Presidency. 

The principal events of this administration were the 
passage of laws regarding internal improvements; the 
disagreement between Congress and the President con- 
cerning the rights of the Creek and the Cherokee Indians 
in the state of Georgia; and the passage of a high tariff 
known as the " Tariff of Abominations." 

S.S. 241-244; E. II. 253-258. 



PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 
1790 TO 1825 

I Our Country in 1790 

There were about four millions of people in the 
United States in 1790. Of these seven hundred and 
fifty thousand were slaves. Very few of these people 
lived west of the Alleghany Mountains. The country 
abounded in natural resources, but they were un- 
developed. It required two months for a courier to 
go from the seat of government to the most distant 
frontier. Jefferson said that it would be a thousand 
years before the country would be thickly populated 
as far west as the Mississippi. The chief sources of 
wealth were agriculture and commerce. Nearly all 
manufactured articles were imported from England. 

M. 175-176; E. II. 138-139. 



70 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

II Industrial Development 

1. Immigration and Emigration 

One of the most important factors in the in- 
dustrial development of the United States at this 
period was the wave of immigration flowing 
toward America. Refugees from France, and 
laborers from England, Ireland, and Germany, 
came to America in such numbers that it seemed 
as if all Europe were coming to the new republic. 
Another important factor was the migration of 
many people, who left their old homes in the 
Eastern States and moved to the west of the 
Alleghanies, carrying with them their laws and in- 
stitutions. This stream of emigration moved west- 
ward in three channels. The first, composed 
largely of people from New England, pushed along 
the borders of Lake Champlain and up the valley 
of the Mohawk. The second, made up of settlers 
from Pennsylvania and Virginia, passed into the 
valleys of West Virginia and Kentucky. The 
third stream came from Virginia and North Caro- 
lina and the emigrants settled in the valley of the 
Tennessee River. The Southern stream settled the 
country south of the Mason and Dixon line. The 
two Northern streams settled the valley of the 
Ohio, known as the Northwest Territory, from 
which were created the states of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, 
S.S. 202-203; M. 241-242; E. II. 246; E. III. 4-5. 

2. Modes of Travel and Communication 

In 1790 the means of travel and communication 
were of the same rude kinds which prevailed dur- 
ing colonial times. For forty years scarcely any 



AMERICAN HISTORY 71 

improvements in transportation had been made. 
But the travel incident to the mighty stream of 
emigration now moving westward gave a powerful 
stimulus to improvements in the means of trans- 
portation. The demands of the hour for better 
and more rapid communication led to the digging 
of canals, the building of roads and bridges, and 
finally to the construction of railroads and tele- 
graph lines. 

S.S. 236; M. 187-189, 252-253; E. II. 224-225, 
227-228, 253; E. III. 4-5. 

3. Inventions 

The two most important inventions of this period 
were the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney in 1793, and 
the steamboat by Robert Fulton in 1807. In a 
few years steamboats appeared on the Ohio, the 
Mississippi, and the Great Lakes. They aided 
greatly in the settlement of the western part of 
the United States. 

S.S. 212, 253; E. III. 5. 

4. Ou7' Country in 1825 

The population of the country had now in- 
creased to the neighborhood of twelve millions. 
The center of population was gradually moving 
toward the West. Old cities were declining, and 
new ones springing up. New York was rapidly 
approaching the two -hundred -thousand mark, 
which it reached in 1830. " This growth of popu- 
lation, it is important to note, had not been 
creative of cities, so much as of simple and, for 
the most part, sparsely settled agricultural com- 



72 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

munities, living each its own arduous, narrow life 
in comparative isolation." ^ 
M. 279-291; E. II. 260-261; E. III. 2-8. 



JACKSON'S AND VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRA- 
TIONS 

In order to obtain a general view of these administra- 
tions, read carefully the following references (see note, 
page 18): 

S.S. 246-253; M. 294-317; E. III. 23-115. 

The election of Jackson marks the beginning of a new 
epoch in the history of the United States. Almost as 
many states had been created out of the territory between 
the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississippi as had at 
first comprised the nation. These new states represented 
the vigorous, and to a certain extent the rough frontier, 
life of the republic. They represented the rising democ- 
racy, — the belief that one man is as good as another, irre- 
spective of his wealth or birth. The effect on American 
politics of this belief is first seen in the election of Jeffer- 
son, and later in the election of the war Congress of 1812. 
All of the Presidents before Jackson, however, belonged 
to the wealthy, cultured, and aristocratic class. 

Jackson was one of the common people. His life had 
been an almost continuous struggle with poverty and 
adverse circumstances. He was blunt in manner and 
speech, headstrong and independent. He typified the 
rough frontier life of the Western States. He could see 
nothing good in an enemy and nothing bad in a friend. 
Any opposition to his public measures he considered as 

IE. III. 5-6. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 73 

a personal attack. With all of his faults, he had the wel- 
fare of the nation at heart. 

Jackson's election marks the complete triumph of 
democracy in the United States, the introduction of the 
''Spoils System" into politics, the destruction of the 
National Bank established by Hamilton, and the tempo- 
rary suppression of secession in South Carolina. The 
financial legislation enacted by Congress during his ad- 
ministration and through his influence caused the 
financial panic of 1837, and during Van Buren's admin- 
istration, resulted in the establishment of the independent 
treasury system which exists at the present time. 

I The "Spoils System" 

The "Spoils System" consists in the giving of as 
many offices as possible to those who have helped 
elect successful candidates. Almost every officer up 
to the President of the United States has the power 
of appointing men and women to office. If the can- 
didate elected is a Democrat he usually appoints 
Democrats to office; if he is a Republican he usually 
appoints Republicans to offiice. It does not matter 
how faithfully an officer may have performed his 
duties, his position is usually given to some member 
of the successful party, and often the new officer is 
less competent than the one whose place he fills. 
As a result of this condition of affairs, public busi- 
ness frequently suffers serious injury. 

Jackson was responsible for the introduction of the 
" Spoils System " into the politics of the United States. 
He claimed that to the victors belonged the spoils of 
office, — that the successful candidate might fill the 
offices under his control with personal followers. Dur- 
ing the first nine montht> of his administration Jackson 



74 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

removed more than one thousand men from office, 
whereas all of the preceding Presidents together had 
not removed more than seventy-three, and then only 
for good cause, and not because of their political 
connections. Since Jackson's administration the 
officers of both parties have appointed men and 
women to office because of their political influence. 

During the last twenty-five years the evil effects 
of the " Spoils System " have been greatly lessened by 
the passage of national legislation known as "the 
Civil Service Laws." These laws compel the Presi- 
dent of the United States to select certain officials 
by means of examination, and the officers thus se- 
lected cannot be removed except for just cause. 
S.S. 247-248; E. III. 30-34. 

II Nullification and Secession 

The high tariff passed in Adams' administration 
was bitterly denounced by the people in some of the 
Southern States. The North and South were devel- 
oping along different lines. The}^ were in many 
respects becoming two different peoples. Because 
of different interests, much of the legislation favored 
by one section was opposed by the other. Under 
Jackson's administration, the tariff was the main 
question of difference. Later it was the slavery 
question. 

Calhoun, speaking for the South, and especially 
for South Carolina, maintained that the nation was 
a mere compact; that a state could nullify a law of 
Congress, and had the constitutional right of with- 
drawing from the Union. The legislature of South 
Carolina, taking this view of the question, passed 
resolutions nullifying the tariff laws. Jackson, how- 



AMERICAN HISTORY 75 

ever, threatened to hang as traitors all who forcibly 
resisted the collection of tariff duties. His firm 
stand, together with a modification in the tariff 
rates, checked the secession movement. 

S.S. 249; M. 301-305; E. III. 51-68. 

Ill The Bank of the United States 

The first United States Bank was established in 
1791, at the suggestion of Hamilton. Its charter, 
having a duration of twenty years, expired in 1811. 
The second Bank of the United States was estab- 
lished in 1816, with privileges extending over a 
similar period; thus its charter expired in 1836. 
The United States held a large number of shares 
in both of these banks, and reserved the right to in- 
spect their financial condition at any time. Ail of 
the surplus money of the United States government 
was deposited in them. 

Jackson was bitterly opposed to the second bank 
of the United States, and before its charter expired, 
withdrew from it all national funds, depositing them 
in state banks. Through his influence Congress re- 
fused, in 1836, to renew the bank's charter. 

The depositing of the surplus money of the 
national government in state banks brought about 
the creation of a large number of state banks, which 
proceeded to issue paper money to an amount far 
in excess of the gold and silver which they kept on 
hand for purposes of redemption. A large part of 
the national taxes was paid in paper currency, and 
a dollar of paper money soon became of less value 
than a dollar of gold or silver. Jackson, becoming 
alarmed, issued a letter known aa the '' Specie Letter," 
which required all of the taxes of the United States 



76 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

to be paid in gold or silver. Men at once took their 
paper money to the banks, asking for gold and silver 
in return. But the banks had not the gold and 
silver with which to redeem their paper money, 
because they had issued a far larger quantity of 
paper money than they could possibly redeem. As 
a result of this condition they were compelled to 
close their doors. Paper money, being thus dis- 
credited, declined rapidly in value; specie payments 
were everywhere suspended; thousands of men and 
women lost everything they had formerly possessed; 
factories were forced to suspend operation; and thus 
was precipitated the financial crisis or panic of 1837. 
President Van Buren, in order to protect the 
national government, induced Congress to pass what 
is known as "the Independent Treasury Act." 
Under the term.s of tliis act the United States was 
enabled to purchase such land in the various states 
as might be required for the erection of government 
buildings in which to deposit the public money of 
the nation. This system, commonly known as the 
Sub-Treasury System, has proven to be very satis- 
factory. 

S.S. 259-262; M. 305-311; E. III. 69-98. 

IV The Nominating Convention 

Up to Jackson's second term the candidates for 
President and Vice-President of the United States 
had always been nominated by Congress or by state 
legislatures. In 1832, however, the candidates for 
these offices were nominated by national conventions, 
and this has been the custom ever since that time. 
M. 306; E. III. 62-63. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 77 

THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON, TYLER, 
AND POLK 

In order to obtain a general idea of these administra- 
tions, read thoughtfully the following references (see 
note, page 18): 

S.S. 259-279; M. 320-343; E. III. 133-160. 

The important feature of these administrations was 
the expansion of slave territory, which was secured by 
the annexation of Texas and the war with Mexico. The 
Southern leaders foresaw that unless more territory was 
secured from which to create new slave states it would 
be only a question of time before the Northern or free 
states would control the national government. The 
annexation of Texas was eagerly sought by the South, 
and once accompUshed, it was made a pretext for war 
with Mexico, in order that still more territory might be 
secured from which to create slave states. 

I Annexation of Texas 

Texas declared her independence of Mexico, but 
Mexico never acknowledged that independence. The 
United States, however, annexed Texas, and sent 
United States troops to the disputed boundary be- 
tween Texas and Mexico to protect her new territory. 

S.S. 267; M. 320-322; E. III. 141-149. 

II Mexican War 
1. Causes 

The causes of this war were the desire on the 
part of the South for more slave territory, the 
annexation of Texas, and the occupation by 



78 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

United States troops of territory on the Rio 
Grande claimed by Mexico. 

S.S. 274; M. 326; E. III. 149-150. 

2. Campaigns 

This war was a series of successes for the 
American army. There were but two campaigns, — 
one under Taylor, on the Rio Grande, and another 
under Scott, who captured Santa Cruz and then 
marched upon and captured the City of Mexico. 
S.S. 274-278; M. 326-328; E. III. 150-152. 

3. Results of the Mexican War 
a. Territorial Results 

The territorial result of this war was the 
acquisition by the United States of the fol- 
lowing territory: California, Nevada, Utah, 
Arizona, New Mexico, and part of Colorado. 
The United States paid Mexico eighteen mil- 
lion dollars for this territory. In 1853 the 
United States purchased from Mexico, for ten 
million dollars, a strip of territory west of the 
Rio Grande, which is known as the Gadsden 
Purchase. 

h. Political Results 

The political result of this war was the re- 
opening of the slavery question. Representa- 
tive Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, proposed an 
amendment — known as the "Wilmot Pro- 
viso" — to a bill pending in Congress. This 
proviso represented the position of the North 
regarding slavery in the territory secured from 
Mexico, and declared that slavery should not 



AMERICAN HISTORY 79 

exist in any of the territories. It failed to 
pass Congress, but its discussion throughout 
the country created a very bitter feeling between 
the North and the South. 
S.S. 275-278; M. 329, 333; E. III. 152-154. 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR, FILL- 
MORE, PIERCE, AND BUCHANAN 

In order to obtain a general view of these administra- 
tions, read carefully the following references (see note, 
page 18): 

S.S. 280-302; M. 335-363; E. III. 161-212. 

The important features of these administrations were 
the events which may be considered as the immediate 
causes of the Civil War. These were the Compromise of 
1850, — known as the "Omnibus Bill," — the "Kansas- 
Nebraska Act," the "Dred Scott Decision," and the 
election of Lincoln. 

I The Compromise of 1850 

During the discussion as to what position slavery 
should have in the territory secured from Mexico, 
the feeling became so bitter in the North and in the 
South that the hotter-headed in both sections made 
open threats of withdrawing from the Union. Web- 
ster and Clay, alarmed as to the outcome, introduced 
and urged compromise measures. The compromise 
of 1850 was the result. By this compromise, among 
other things, California was admitted as a free state, 
and slavery in the remainder of the Mexican cession 
was left unsettled. This compromise proved to be 



80 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

but a temporary measure, and secured merely a lull 
in the slavery agitation. 

S.S. 282-283; M. 339-343; E. III. 165-178. 

II The Kansas- Nebraska Act 

The Fugitive Slave Law, which was part of the 
Compromise of 1850, was being energetically made 
use of by the South, and this served to create a more 
intense feeling against slavery in the North. 
''Uncle Tom's Cabin," though an unjust representa- 
tion of the slavery system, was a powerful instru- 
ment in intensifying this feeling. 

Under these conditions the Democrats elected 
Pierce to the Presidency, and secured control of both 
houses of Congress. The leaders of both parties were 
anxious to let the slavery question rest, but Senator 
Douglas introduced a bill, known as the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act, which provided for the organization 
of Kansas and Nebraska into territories, and which 
expressly stated that the question of slavery should 
be left to the people of those territories. This bill 
became a law, and as Kansas and Nebraska were 
both north of 36° 30', it repealed the Missouri Com- 
promise of 1820. Settlers from the North and the 
South at once rushed into Kansas, and that territory 
became the scene of a bloody civil strife. 

S.S. 289-292; M. 346-352; E. III. 182-187. 

Ill The Deed Scott Decision 

Dred Scott was a slave taken by his master from 
Missouri into a free state and into a free territory of 
the North. On his return to Missouri he sued for his 
freedom, on the ground that slavery could not exist 
in a free state. The Supreme Court of the United 



AMERICAN HISTORY 81 

States held that a slave was not a citizen, but property, 
and therefore had no rights in the courts. This 
meant that neither the Congress of the United States 
nor the legislature of a territory could prevent 
slavery from spreading throughout the territory of 
the United States. This decision still further em- 
bittered the North. 

S.S. 297; M. 255-256; E. III. 197-199. 

IV Election of Lincoln 

Lincoln's position on the slave question was made 
plain in the Lincoln-Douglas debates. He then de- 
clared that he was emphatically opposed to the 
extension of slavery, and that the nation must in 
time become all slave or all free. The majority of 
the people of the North agreed with him. Upon his 
election to the Presidency, the South recognized 
that slavery would not be further extended, and that 
they would forever lose control of the national gov- 
ernment. They considered it necessary, in order to 
preserve the institution of slavery, to withdraw from 
the Union, and this withdrawal marks the beginning 
of the Civil War. 

S.S. 299-302; M. 360-363; E. III. 204-212. 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 

The Civil War 

1. Causes of the Civil War 

The immediate causes of the Civil War were the 
events mentioned above in connection with the 
previous administrations. The remote or real 
causes of this war were the differences in the to- 



82 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

pography and climate of the South and the Nortn, 
and the introduction of slavery into the English 
colonies of North America. 

The large navigable rivers of the South, with 
wide, fertile plains extending on either side of 
them, favored the extensive cultivation of a few 
staple products. These products were rice, cotton, 
and tobacco. The production of these staples did 
not require skilled labor, and slave-labor could 
be used with profit in their production. The 
warm, mild climate of the South was favorable 
to the negro, and reduced the cost of his clothing 
and his shelter to a minimum. These conditions 
in the South made slave-labor profitable and the 
extension of the system very important. 

In the Northern States the conditions were 
almost reversed. In the North there were but 
few broad valleys, the soil was less fertile, and 
the climate was severe. The topography, the soil, 
and the climate did not favor the extensive culti- 
vation of those staples in the production of which 
slave-labor could be used with profit. The in- 
dustries of the North required a large amount of 
skilled labor, and for this kind of labor the negro 
was unfitted. 

At first slavery existed in all of the Northern 
Colonies, but it was gradually aboHshed. This 
was largely due to the industrial conditions, 
which made slave-labor unprofitable. In the 
Southern Colonies the slavery system was ex- 
tended because slave-labor could be used with 
profit on large plantations. This was especially 
true after the invention of the cotton-gin and im- 
proved weaving machinery had increased many 



AMERICAN HISTORY 83 

times the production of cotton. There were, per- 
haps, from the first some people in the North who 
opposed slavery because they thought that it was 
morally wrong, and this number gradually in- 
creased. This was largely due, however, to the 
fact that the Northern people were not accustomed 
to slavery. 

From the time the North abolished slavery 
and its continuance in the South became assured, 
the two sections began to drift rapidly apart, 
especially in their social and industrial life. 
The South remained to the close of the Civil War 
strictly an agricultural country. It had all the 
necessary resources for manufacturing, but as her 
wealth was in the hands of large slave-holders, 
and the slaves could not be used with profit ex- 
cept on the plantations, that source of wealth 
was left undeveloped. This prevented the growth 
of large cities and repelled immigration. Labor 
was considered degrading, and hence the South 
did not possess the prosperous middle class. So- 
ciety consisted of the landed aristocracy, the 
slaves, and the poor whites. Long before the out- 
break of the Civil War, Southern society rested 
firmly on the institution of slavery, and to destroy 
slavery meant in a certain sense the destruction 
of the social and the industrial institutions of the 
South. Therefore the statesmen and slave-owners 
of the South would not for a moment favorably 
consider the abolition of the slavery system. 

While the South for nearly a hundred years 
remained stationary in her industrial develop- 
ment and society was becoming firmly molded 
around the institution of slavery, the North and 



84 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

West were making gigantic strides in their 
industrial development. Inventions, which in- 
creased many fold the power of man, were being 
made full use of in the North, while in the South 
they were scarcely used at all. Men of wealth 
found investment for their money in the North, 
and manufacturing, railroad-building, and other 
industries rapidly increased in importance. Labor 
was considered honorable, and nearly all of the 
foreign immigrants located north of the Mason 
and Dixon line. 

All the forces referred to above caused the North 
and South to drift wider and wider apart, both 
socially and industrially, until by 1860 they had 
in these respects become two di^erent peoples. 
There was a strong sentiment in the North that 
slavery was morally wrong, while in the South it 
was considered right and just. Nearly all of the 
Southern churches maintained that it was sanc- 
tioned by the Scriptures. The statesmen of the 
South foresaw that it was only a question of time 
when the slave states must leave the Union, or 
give up the institution of slavery, and thus wreck 
the foundation of Southern society. They chose 
to fight, rather than give up the institution. The 
people of the North, under the same circumstances, 
would probably have followed a similar course. 
In other words, there were forces at work from 
early colonial times which made the Civil War 
inevitable. Neither the people of the North nor 
those of the South can be held responsible for this 
war. It was caused by forces beyond their control. 
It was one of those questions in advancing civil- 
ization which must usually be settled by the 
sword. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 85 

2. The Qomparative Resources of the North and the 
South 

a. Available Soldiers 

Of the thirty-one million of residents in the 
United States, but nine millions belonged to 
the seceding area, and of these more than three 
million five hundred thousand were slaves. 
All told, the total adult male population of the 
South was about two million eight hundred 
thousand. " The North was to call more than 
two million and a half men into the field before 
the war ended." ^ While, numerically, the 
North was far superior to the South, it must 
be remembered that the Southern people were 
practically united to a man. Such was far 
from being the case in the North. A very 
large percentage were also directing all of their 
energies toward industrial pursuits, this being 
a time of great industrial growth and expansion. 

b. Available Leaders and Commanders 

Here, if anything, the Southern people had 
the advantage in having at command so many 
men of military training and great military 
genius. While both sections had graduated 
many officers from the government military 
schools, it so happened that the Southern men 
were of greater ability. 

c. Military Supplies 

In the beginning the South had the advan- 
tage in this direction on account of the military 
supplies which had been stored in Southern 

1 E. III. 244. 



86 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

arsenals before the outbreak of hostilities. But 
as the North tightened the blockade and pre- 
vented their enemy from drawing on England 
for further war material, the South became 
seriously handicapped because of the scarcity 
which prevailed. Not until the outcome of the 
war had been practically decided had the 
necessary factories been put into operation for 
supplying the needs of the Southern armies. 
The North, being a manufacturing country, 
with factories already in operation, was able to 
provide itself with the war material which its 
armies required. 

d. Financial Resources 

'^ In its extraordinary straits for money the 
government of the Confederacy had resort to 
every expedient known to finance, even the 
most desperate."^ An immense amount of 
paper money was issued, only to depreciate in 
value until it became almost worthless. In 
the North, on account of a much stronger credit, 
the government was able to float immense 
quantities of bonds and to issue paper money 
without its depreciation to any very great 
extent as compared with the currency of the 
Confederacy. On account of the industrial 
activity of the North the Union was able to 
raise very large sums of money from taxation, 
— an expedient which the South was almost 
entirely deprived of when the blockade closed 
the only outlet for its agricultural products. 

1 E. III. 247. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 87 

e. Facilities for Transportation 

Before and during the war a vast network 
of railroads was being woven between the 
different states of the North. When the crisis 
came the Union was able to transport soldiers 
and military supplies from one point to another 
with comparatively little delay. In the South, 
on the other hand, railroads were compara- 
tively few and poorly equipped, nor had they 
the iron needed for replacing worn-out rails, or 
the workmen who should have been ready to 
repair and keep the different lines in good 
working order. There was no lack of agricul- 
tural products, "but the means of distributing 
what the fields produced, of bringing it within 
reach of the armies, and of others who were 
almost starving, were wretchedly inadequate." ^ 
M. 383; E. III. 220-221, 232-233, 239, 244-248. 

Campaigns of the Civil War 

At the beginning of the Civil War, the national 
government determined to enforce the laws of the 
United States in the South, and prevent the seced- 
ing states from leaving the Union. In order to 
accomplish these purposes, it was decided to 
blockade the South, capture Richmond, open up 
the Mississippi, and cut the Confederacy into two 
sections. In a short time three great armies were 
organized, — the Army of the Potomac, the Army 
of the Cumberland, and the Army of the Tennes- 
see. The Army of the Potomac was to defend 
Washington and capture Richmond. The armies 



1 E. III. 248. 



88 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

of the Cumberland and the Tennessee were to 
operate in the West and open np the Mississippi. 

a. Operations of the Army of the Potomac, down 
to the Time when Grant was Placed in Com- 
mand of all the Armies of the United States 
After the disastrous battle of Bull Run, the 
troops around AVashington were placed under 
the command of McClellan, and called the 
Army of the Potomac. The proposed work of 
this army was to capture Richmond. Two 
plans were proposed for reaching Richmond. 
The authorities at Washington thought that 
the better way was for the army to proceed 
directly South. McClellan objected to this, on 
account of the many rivers in the path, besides 
which strong fortifications had been erected by 
the Confederates. He advised that soldiers be 
landed from transports at Yorktown, Virginia, 
and from there proceed against Richmond. 
McClellan's plan prevailed, and in the spring 
of 1862, with an army of one hundred thousand 
men, he was transferred to the vicinity of 
Yorktown. After several months of hard fight- 
ing the campaign ended in failure. 
S.S. 309-310; M. 392-393; E. III. 224-225. 

In August, 1862, McClellan was ordered 
back to defend Washington. A month later, 
the armies of Lee and McClellan met at Sharps- 
burg, or Antietam, in western Maryland. Here 
a great battle was fought, with the result that 
Lee was compelled to retreat across the Poto- 
mac and for the time abandon his idea of 



AMERICAN HISTORY 89 

invading the North. As McClellan did not 
follow Lee with sufficient energy to meet the 
approval of the authorities at Washington, he 
was removed and Burnside was placed in com- 
mand. In December, 1862, Burnside was de- 
feated at Fredericksburg, and his command 
was given to General Hooker. In the spring 
of 1863, Hooker crossed the Rapidan, only to 
meet with a terrible defeat at the hands of 
Lee's army. In this battle Stonewall Jackson, 
one of Lee's ablest generals, was accidentally 
killed by his own men. Encouraged by his 
victory over Hooker, Lee again attempted to 
invade the North. Amid great excitement 
throughout the North, Hooker was removed, 
and General George A. Meade given command 
of the Army of the Potomac. The two armies 
met at Gettysburg, a village in southeastern 
Pennsylvania. Here, on the first, second, and 
third days of July, 1863, was fought one of the 
greatest battles in the history of the world. 
Lee's army was defeated, and he never again 
attempted to carry the war into the enemy's 
country. Meade did not pursue Lee's shat- 
tered forces. The Army of the Potomac fought 
no other great battles until after Grant assumed 
command of all of the armies of the United 
States, in March, 1864. 

S.S. 311, 313; M. 394, 396; E. III. 224-226, 
230. 

6. The Work of Grant in the Civil War 

In the early part of 1862, Grant was placed 
in command of the Union force at Cairo, Illi- 



90 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

nois. His first important work was the capture 
of Fort DoPxaldson, on the Cumberland River. 
After three days of fighting, Buckner, as com- 
mander of the Confederate forces, asked Grant 
what terms would be granted him if he should 
surrender the fort together with his force of 
fifteen thousand men. Grant replied, " No 
terms, except unconditional and immediate 
surrender, can be accepted." Buckner sur- 
rendered under the terms mentioned, and thus 
Grant won the first great Union victory. 

Grant now moved up the Tennessee and 
fought the Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Land- 
ing. Albert Sidney Johnson, in command of 
the Confederate army, was killed and his army 
forced to retreat. Grant's next important 
work was the siege and capture of Vicksburg. 
Vicksburg was a well-fortified city on the Mis- 
sissippi, defended by thirty-seven thousand sol- 
diers under the command of Pemberton. After 
a siege of seven weeks, the city was compelled 
to surrender on the fourth day of July, 1863, 
just one day after the defeat of Lee at Gettys- 
burg. Port Hudson surrendered five days 
later, and the Federal government had secured 
control of the Mississippi from Minnesota to 
the Gulf. These events were the beginning of 
the end, and the cause of the South from this 
time onward steadily declined. 

Grant next turned his attention to Chatta- 
nooga, at which place Bragg had defeated Rose- 
crans and laid siege to the Union army. Under 
the direction of Grant, the two brilliant battles 
of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge 



AMERICAN HISTORY 91 

were fought. The Confederates under Bragg 
and their army were driven southward toward 
Atlanta. 

In March, 1864, Grant was made commander- 
in-chief of all the Union forces. He gave his 
personal attention to the Army of the Potomac, 
but directed the movements of all of the Fed- 
eral troops. Sherman was placed in com- 
mand at Chattanooga. He moved South, 
captured Atlanta, and then made his famous 
march to the sea. Early in the spring of 1864, 
Grant took command of the Army of the 
Potomac, consisting of about one hundred and 
twenty thousand men. He moved his army 
southward, crossed the Rappahannock and 
entered the Wilderness. Here he met Lee's 
army of sixty thousand men, and a terrible 
struggle ensued. In one month Grant lost 
sixty-four thousand soldiers, but he forced Lee 
to retreat and take up his position within the 
fortifications of Richmond. Grant laid siege 
to the city. Sherman's march through the 
South and Sheridan's raids with his cavalry 
had cut off a large part of Lee's provisions. 
Lee evacuated Richmond and attempted to 
escape, but Grant surrounded his army and 
forced a surrender at Appomattox Court House, 
a little place about seventy-five miles west of 
Richmond, April 9, 1865. The surrender of 
the other Confederate armies soon followed, 
and the Civil War was over. 
S.S. 313-314, 316, 321-322, 324-325, 328-333; 

M. 388-392, 397-399, 402-406; E. III. 223- 

224, 230-232, 234, 237-238, 252. 



92 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OP 

c. The Work of the Navy in the Civil War 

(1) Blockade of the Southern Ports 

At the beginning of the war the national 
government, in order to cripple the Con- 
federacy as much as possible, decided upon 
a complete blockade of the Southern ports. 
Until this blockade was effected, the South 
could export cotton, sugar, and tobacco, 
and import arms and other military sup- 
plies. To accomplish this blockade, the 
national government had at first about 
twenty-four vessels, but it built and 
equipped a navy with marvelous rapidity, 
and by the close of the year 1861, had 
the blockade fairly effective. There were 
more than three thousand miles of coast 
for the Union vessels to watch, however, 
and many vessels, known as blockade- 
runners, would slip past the Union vessels 
in the night and succeed in bringing sup- 
plies to the Confederates. During the 
war, more than fifteen hundred of these 
blockade-runners were taken or destroyed 
by the Union fleet. 
S.S. 317; M. 410-412; E. III. 229-230. 

(2) Commerce-Destroyers 

While the North was busy in perfecting 
a blockade of the Southern coast, the Con- 
federates were fitting out vessels called 
Commerce-Destroyers. It was the business 
of these vessels to watch the great high- 
ways of commerce and to destroy as many 
Union merchant ships as possible. The most 



AMERICAN HISTORY 93 

famous vessels of this kind were the Florida , 
the Alabama, and the Shenandoah, all of 
which were fitted out in England. They 
did an immense amount of damage to the 
commerce of the North during the war. In 
1872, a board of arbitration, to which the 
case had been submitted, decided that 
England should pay to the United States 
the sum of fifteen million dollars on 
account of the injury done to American 
commerce during the war by Confederate 
"Commerce- Destroyers" which had been 
fitted out in English ports. This settle- 
ment is known as the " Geneva Award." 
S.S. 345; M. 412-414; E. III. 229-230. 

(3) The Revolution in Naval Warfare 

In the early part of 1862 the Confed- 
erates raised a vessel which had been sunk 
in the navy-yard at Norfolk, Virginia. 
They covered it with a double plating of 
iron, and christened it the Virginia. This 
was the first ironclad warship ever con- 
structed. With this vessel the Confederates 
destroyed several of the larger Union war- 
vessels at that time lying in Hampton 
Roads, Virginia. Before it had completed 
the work of destruction at that port, the 
Monitor, an ironclad vessel built in New 
York by John Ericsson, arrived on the 
scene. A battle took place between the 
two vessels which was to be the most im- 
portant single event of the war, proving as 
it did that a few ironclad vessels could 



94 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

destroy the largest wooden navy afloat. 
A complete revolution in naval construc- 
tion now took place, and the great wooden 
war-vessels of the world were rapidly 
supplanted by iron-protected fighting- 
machines. 
S.S. 318-319; M. 414-417; E. III. 229. 

4. Results of the Civil War 

The main results of the Civil War were the 
destruction of slavery, the great industrial develop- 
ment of the South, which the destruction of slavery 
made possible, the enfranchisement of the negro, 
and the race problem which this enfranchisement 
created and which has not yet been settled. 

Since the War the industrial development of 
the South has been extremely rapid. Iron and 
coal fields second to none in the world have 
been discovered. The production of cotton has 
vastly increased. Manufacturing establishments 
of every kind have been springing into existence. 
Many large manufacturing establishments are 
moving their machinery from New England into 
the South. 

The social and the political status of the negro 
in the South is a difficult question to solve, and 
its final solution belongs to the future. 

Another important result of the War has been 
the unification of the nation. Sectional feeling 
has almost vanished because slavery, its cause, 
has been removed. During the Spanish- American 
war, ex-Confederate soldiers fought side by side 
with Federal soldiers who had been their old 
opponents in the Civil War. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 95 

Other results of the war were the destruction 
of more than sixbilHon dollars' worth of property 
and the loss of about seven hundred thousand of 
the best men of the nation, the South losing al- 
most as many of these as the North. 



THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED 
STATES FROM 1865 TO 1900 

In order to secure a general view of this period read 
carefully the references given below (see note page 18): 
S.S. 337-366; M. 425-432; 437-451, 462-476; E. Ill, 
254-299. 

I Reconstruction of the Seceding States 

After the Civil War had ended it became neces- 
sary to reorganize the state governments in the 
South, and to decide on some method by which the 
Southern States could again send Senators and 
Representatives to the national Congress. During 
the summer of 1865, while Congress was not in 
session, the Southern people, under the direction of 
Johnson, reorganized their state governments and 
elected members to both branches of Congress. Most 
of the newly organized legislatures at once pro- 
ceeded to pass laws which practically re-enslaved 
the negroes. 

' When Congress met in December, 1865, it repudi- 

ated all these acts, and proceeded to reconstruct the 
Southern States according to its own ideas. It 
passed, over the President's vetoes, a number of laws 
for the purpose of securing to the negro civil rights, 
and placed soldiers in the Southern States to see to 



96 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

it thp..t these laws were enforced. All of the soldiers 
were not withdrawn until 1877. Before the seceding 
states regained all of the rights which they had lost 
by secession Congress compelled them to ratify 
three amendments to the constitution of the United 
States. The Thirteenth Amendment made the negro 
free, the Fourteenth made him a citizen, and the 
Fifteenth gave him the right to vote. 

S.S. 337-342; M. 425-431; E. III. 254-271. 

II Scandals in the Departments of the National 

Government 

Under Grant's administration, for the first time 
in the history of the United States, officials in 
both the legislative and the executive departments 
were found guilty of fraud in the performance of 
official duties. Members of Congress sold their votes 
to corporations. This is known as the '' Credit Mobi- 
lier " affair. The Secretary of War, W. W. Belknap, 
was impeached for accepting bribes, but escaped con- 
viction by resigning. 

S.S. 348; E. III. 277-280. 

III Civil Service Reform 

Andrew Jackson introduced the Spoils System 
into American politics. Since 1871, attempts have 
been made to overcome the evil results of the system. 
In the spring of that year Congress passed what it 
termed a Civil Service Reform Act. This law gave 
to the President the power of selecting a commission 
which should devise a better plan for the appoint- 
ment of men to all offices under his control. Grant 
was anxious to enforce this law and better the civil 



AMERICAN HISTORY 97 

service, but the members of Congress, desiring the 
offices for political purposes, refused to vote money 
to carry out the reform. As a result, it proved of 
little value. 

In 1883, Congress passed what is known as the 
" Pendleton Civil Service Act." This law gave the 
President the power of making appointments to 
office by means of examination, and officers thus 
appointed could not be removed so long as they did 
their work well. President Arthur placed a large 
number of offices under this civil service regulation, 
and President Cleveland increased the number. 
Many of the best statesmen of the United States 
hope that this law marks the beginni^ng of the down- 
fall of the Spoils System. 

S.S. 361; E. III. 277, 293-294. 

IV The Treaty of Washington 

The Treaty of Washington provided for the set- 
tlement by arbitration of the questions in dispute 
between the United States and Great Britain. 
These questions v/ere: The disputed boundary line 
between British Columbia and the state of Wash- 
ington, the rights of American fishermen in Cana- 
dian waters, and the destruction of American com- 
merce during the Civil War by vessels fitted out in 
British ports. This last-mentioned is known as the 
"Alabama Claims.'^ This treaty is important, be- 
cause it is the first notable example of the voluntary 
arbitration by two great nations of questions in dis- 
pute. 

S.S. 344-345; E. III. 278-279. 



98 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

V Financial Legislation 

1. National Bank System 

During tlie Civil War the national bank sys- 
tem of the United States was established. This 
system is entirely different from the United States 
Bank destroyed by Jackson. It was established 
for the purpose of creating a market for the sale 
of United States bonds, in order that money might 
be secured to carry on the war. The law which 
established this system provides that not less than 
five persons, with a combined capital of not less 
than one hundred thousand dollars, may estab- 
lish a national bank. They must invest a sum 
amounting to at least one third of their capital 
in United States bonds, and the government will 
then give them bank notes not exceeding ninety 
per cent of the par value of these bonds. The 
national bank system is now an important feature 
of the financial system of the United States. 
S.S. 335; M. 421; E. III. 232-233. 

2. Resumption of Specie Payments 

In order to secure money during the Civil War 
nearly five hundred million dollars' worth of 
paper money was issued by the national govern- 
ment. This paper money was made a legal cur- 
rency for all kinds of business, but no one could 
require the government to exchange gold or silver 
for it. In 1864, Congress passed a law which 
provided that the Treasury Department should 
pay out gold and silver in return for paper money, 
and all of the paper money thus secured was to 
be destroyed, the object being to bring the finances 
of the country back to a gold and silver basis. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 99 

This redeeming of paper money Avith gold and 
silver is known as the Resumption of Specie Pay- 
ment. 

The amount of paper money in circulation was 
reduced from four hundred and forty-nine million 
dollars in 1864 to three hundred and fifty-six 
million dollars in 1868, when the resumption of 
specie payments was discontinued. In 1879 specie 
payments were resumed and have continued down 
to the present time. 
S.S. 355; M. 437-438, 445; E. III. 280-281. 

3. Gold and Silver Standards 

Standard money must be good in payment for 
all debts, and the material out of which this 
money is made must be coined by the United 
States mints practically free of charge for any one 
who takes the material to the mint and complies 
with the regulations. 

Until 1873 both gold and silver were standard 
moneys in the United States, — that is, any one 
possessing either gold or silver metal could have 
it coined into money. In 1873 the coinage of 
silver as a standard circulating medium was 
partially discontinued, and in 1876 the coinage 
of silver as a standard money was abolished. In 
1878 it was again made a standard money, but 
the amount which the government could coin 
during each year was limited. The law pro- 
viding for this is called the Bland Silver Bill. In 
1890, Congress passed what is known as the 
Sherman Act. This law directed the Secretary 
of the Treasury to buy about fifteen million 
dollars' worth of silver each year. After 1891 it 



UfC^ 



100 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

was provided that the silver bought need not be 
coined, but silver certificates for four million five 
hundred thousand ounces of silver must be issued 
each month and these must be redeemed in gold 
and silver. In order to protect the gold reserve 
in the United States treasury, the Sherman Act 
was repealed in Cleveland's second administra- 
tion. In the spring of 1900, Congress passed a 
law which declared, in substance, that the gold 
standard would be maintained in the United 
States. 
S.S. 354; M. 448-449, 467, 472; E. III. 291-292. 

VI Tariff Legislation 

Tariff, as used in national legislation, is a tax 
levied on goods brought into the United States from 
another country. One of the main objects of a tariff 
is to obtain the money required for meeting the ex- 
penses of government and the payment of the 
national debt. Another object is to protect home 
industries. 

The Republican party believes that tariff duties 
should be so levied as to protect the manufacturing 
and agricultural interests of the country. This 
means that all goods which can be produced in the 
United States should be required to pay an import 
duty so as to secure a better market for home pro- 
ducts, and thus to increase home production. The 
Democratic party believes that the tariff should be 
placed almost exclusively on such articles as are 
used by the wealthier classes, and that American 
industries should be compelled to compete with for- 
eign industries without the assistance of tariff duties. 

The ideas of the Republicans in regard to the 



AMERICAN HISTORY 101 

tariff have prevailed since 1860, except during Cleve- 
land's second administration. The AVilson Bill, 
passed during that administration, modified the 
tariff in many respects, though it retained a large 
number of protective features. During the McKin- 
ley administration the protective tariff was restored. 
As the Southern States are rapidly becoming manu- 
facturing states, it is quite probable that both parties 
will hereafter support the protective system. 
S.S. 360; M. 419-420, 466, 473, 476. 

VII Industrial Legislation 

The great industrial development of the United 
States since 1865 has called forth special legis- 
lation concerning industrial matters. Among the 
important laws passed by the national govern- 
ment are the laws regulating commerce between 
the states, known as the Interstate Commerce 
Act; the Contract Labor Law, which prevents any 
person in the United States from importing labor- 
ers under contract; the law restricting Chinese 
immigration; a number of laws to prevent the 
adulteration of foods; and a law which makes 
eight hours a full day's work in certain kinds of 
government employment. Many states have also 
passed laws regulating railway fares, restricting 
the powers and defining the duties of corporations, 
and other laws having for their object the welfare 
of the laboring classes and the regulation of trusts. 

M. 464-465. 

VIII Cleveland and the Monroe Doctrine 

Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree 
upon the boundary between their territory in 



102 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

South America, and the United States asked Great 
Britain to arbitrate the question in accordance 
v/ith the Monroe doctrine. Great Britain claimed 
that the world had outgrown that doctrine. On 
receiving through the British Minister at Wash- 
ington a note from the British government con- 
taining these views, Cleveland at once obtained 
permission from Congress to appoint a commission 
whose duty it should be to determine the boundary 
in dispute. In a proclamation to Congress he 
stated that when the line had once been determined 
by the commission, the United States should fight 
if necessary in order to maintain it. England 
then consented to have the matter submitted to 
arbitration. The firm stand of Cleveland served 
as a notice to the world that the United States 
would strictly enforce the Monroe Doctrine. 
M. 474. 

IX The Spanish- American War 

1. Causes 

The remote cause of this war was Spanish mis- 
government of her West Indian possessions. The 
immediate cause was the destruction of the Ameri- 
can battle-ship Maine, in the harbor of Havana, 
with the loss of more than two hundred and fifty 
sailors. It has not been proven whether the 
destruction of this vessel was accidental or not, 
but the important fact is that the feeling which 
its destruction created in the United States led 
directly to war. 

2. Campaigns 

The war was decided in favor of the United 



AMERICAN HISTORY 103 

States by the American nav3^ Two naval battles 
were fought, — one in the Philippine Islands and 
one off the southern coast of Cuba. In these two 
battles the Spanish navy was practically destroyed, 
without the loss to the American forces of a single 
ship, and with the loss of but one man. These tv/o 
battles showed the Americans to have lost none of 
their ability as sea fighters since the War of 1812. 
With her navy destroyed, Spain could not hope to 
make any effective resistance on the land, either 
in the Philippines or in the West Indies. The war 
ended after some severe fighting on the island of 
Cuba around the city of Santiago. 

Results 

The war itself was of little importance, but its 
results may be of vast importance to the United 
States. The territorial result was the acquisition 
by the United States of the Philippine Islands, 
the Spanish West India Islands, and the Hawaiian 
Islands. The Hawaiian Islands would very likely 
have been acquired in any event, but the war 
hastened their annexation. These new posses- 
sions may vitally affect the future policy of the 
United States, and in this way the war may have 
far-reaching results. If these possessions are 
treated as colonies, the United States may be com- 
pelled to mix in Asiatic and European affairs, thus 
abandoning the principle of neutrality estabhshed 
by Washington, to which the United States has 
strictly adhered. Previous to the acquisition of this 
territory all of the country acquired by the United 
States had been practically uninhabited, leaving 
for the American people the development of its 



104 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

resources and its preparation for becoming an 
integral part of the Union. Most of the territory 
acquired from Spain during the recent war is 
thickly populated, and if it be held as colonial 
possessions, and the Constitution of the United 
States be not permitted to extend over it, a new 
principle will have entered into the American 
government. 

These questions belong to the future, but their 
solution will make up some of the most important 
work of American statesmen. 



THE PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES SINCE 

1865 

The progress of the United States since the Civil Wai 
in 1865 has not been equaled by that of any other period 
of the world's history. This is especially true in all lines 
of industrial and educational development. 

I The Development of the New West 

The discovery of gold and silver mines in Cali- 
fornia and in the Rocky Mountains caused a great 
stream of emigration to start westward. At first 
the covered wagon was the principal means of 
• transportation. This was followed by the overland 
stage-coach, and finally by the Union Pacific and 
other railroads. There are now six transconti- 
nental railroad lines, which, together with their 
branches, penetrate into every section of the West. 
This has had more influence on the development of 
the West than any other single factor. In truth, 
the present development would have been impos- 



AMERICAN HISTORY 105 

sible without their assistance. The government 
has done much to encourage the building of rail- 
roads. For this purpose it has given to railroad 
companies more than two hundred million acres of 
land and sixty millions of dollars. 

S.S. 346; M. 433-438; E. III. 221. 

II The New South 

The abolition of slavery produced a revolution 
in the labor system of the South. Before the 
War slavery had been the corner-stone of Southern 
society. With the emancipation of the slaves this 
society passed away, and on its ruins arose the 
" New South," having free labor as its foundation. 
The South has gained greatly by this change. The 
production of cotton has doubled since 1860. At 
that time the capital invested in Southern manu- 
facturing industries was so small as to scarcely 
require mentioning. There is now invested in 
machine-shops, mills, and workshops more than 
fifty million dollars of capital. Thousands of miles 
of railroads have been built. Atlanta, Chattanooga, 
New Orleans, Augusta, Birmingham, and other 
Southern cities now have manufacturing establish- 
ments which rival those of the North and those of 
the West. 

S.S. 358; M. 454; E. III. 298. 

III The Progress of Manufactures 

In 1860 the manufactured products of the United 
States were valued at four billions of dollars. The 
estimated annual value of the present output from 
its factories is ten billions of dollars, being greater 
than that of any other country in the world. In 



106 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

1860, England led the world in the manufacture of 
iron and steel. Now the United States is far in 
advance of that country. This is but a single illus- 
tration of the rapid growth of the manufacturing 
industries of the United States. Nearly all of her 
large cities are hives of industrial enterprise, and 
the products of her factories are carried to the 
markets of every country in the world. 
S.S. 365; M. 459-461. 

IV Practical Application of Electricity 

Within recent years a new force had been ap- 
plied to the uses of man. The first practical appli- 
cation of electricity was in the field of telegraphy. 
Now its uses are almost unlimited. Nearly every 
form of machinery may be run by its energy. 
Cities are lighted, street-cars are moved, search- 
lights are operated, metals are welded, and hun- 
dreds of other useful things are done by this mar- 
velous power, — electricity. 

S.S. 269; M. 459; E. III. 162. 

V Corporations and Trusts 

A corporation is an organization recognized by 
law, and empowered to transact a certain kind of 
business, as though it were one person. The won- 
derful industrial progress of the United States has 
made it possible for men to amass large fortunes. 
These fortunes, singly or in combinations, have 
been used for the purpose of building long railroad 
lines, developing large mining interests, and under- 
taking other enterprises. They have often taken 
advantage of the great power which they possess in 
order to crush out smaller enterprises having less 



AMERICAN HISTORY 107 

financial backing. A vast corporation often takes 
the place of countless individual business concerns. 
For example, the Western Union Telegraph Com- 
pany was organized in 1886 out of forty small 
telegraph companies. Many lines of railroads have 
been combined into a few trunk lines. The Stan- 
dard Oil Company has taken the place of any num- 
ber of smaller oil companies. When great corpora- 
tions were first organized they were brought into 
sharp competition with other business firms, and 
prices were kept at a low mark. The people re- 
ceived the benefit of this competition. The cor- 
porations soon learned that it was to their advan- 
tage to form combinations, thus avoiding competi- 
tion with each other. Vast combines and trusts 
have now been formed in almost every line of busi- 
ness. With their immense wealth and aggressive 
methods they constitute one of the great dangers 
of the country. No law has yet been devised which 
can control powerful combinations of capital. The 
solution of this question is one of the great prob- 
lems of the future. 

M. 459-461; E. III. 290. 

VI Labor Unions 

In order to protect themselves against the com- 
binations of capital mentioned in the preceding 
discussion the laboring people of the country have 
combined at different times and under various 
names. The most famous of these organizations is 
the " Noble Order of the Knights of Labor," founded 
in 1869. These labor organizations exist in almost 
every locality where large numbers of laborers are 
employed. Most of them have combined into one 



108 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 

union, known as the " Federation of Labor Unions." 
By their combined efforts they have shortened the 
hours of labor, raised wages, secured the passage of 
laws restricting foreign immigration, stopped the 
importation of foreign contract labor, and accom- 
plished many other things, which, taken together, 
have raised the condition of the American laborer 
above that of any other in the world. 
M. 460-461. 

VII Education 

1. The Common-School System 

In the constitutions of nearly all the states 
of the American Union ample provision is 
made for the maintenance of free public schools. 
Although each state has its own system, and 
there is wide difference as to length of school 
terms, qualifications and salaries of teachers, 
courses of study, and similar matters, there 
are many forces at work which are tending to 
make the schools uniform throughout the 
United States. Some of these forces are, — The 
National Bureau of Education, The National 
Educational Association, and the various edu- 
cational journals. Nearly all the states at the 
time of their organization set aside certain 
lands in each township for the support of pub- 
lic schools. In most cases these lands have 
been sold and the money obtained therefrom 
constitutes a school fund, the interest of which 
is used for school purposes. Whatever addi- 
tional money is needed is obtained by direct 
taxation. Prior to 1860 the Northern States 
were far in advance of those of the South in all 



AMERICAN HISTORY 109 

lines of educational work. Before 1870, every 
Southern state except Delaware had made con- 
stitutional provision for a free school system. 
S.S. 368-369, 372. 

2. High Schools 

Since their establishment in 1821, high 
schools have been steadily growing in impor- 
tance and popularity with the people. The high 
schools have been aptly called the " Colleges of the 
Common People." It may assist us in realizing 
the great progress which has been made in edu- 
cation in this country if we remember that the 
course of study given by the present average 
high school is equivalent to the course main- 
tained by Harvard and Yale in 1750. The 
service of the high school in stimulating the 
work of the grammar school, and in giving the 
young people of all classes an opportunity for 
higher training can scarcely be overestimated. 

3. Normal Schools 

As one of the prominent factors in the present 
educational system, the normal schools should 
not be overlooked. They have been established 
throughout the country, and have been making 
a valuable contribution to education through 
the many boys and girls whom they have 
trained and fitted for the profession of teaching. 

4. Universities and Colleges 

At the top of our educational system are the 
many colleges and universities of the land. 
Some date their origin back to colonial days, 



110 A TOPICAL DISCUSSION 

others have been established during the national 
period as public or private institutions. Some 
of the most important institutions, such as the 
Leland Stanford Junior University and the 
University of Chicago, have been established in 
very recent years, and owe their foundation to 
the munificence of private individuals. The 
collective influence of the colleges and univer- 
sities upon American life can hardly be accu- 
rately determined. They are becoming a more 
and more important factor in raising the stan- 
dard of American life and education. University 
and college graduates are not only engaging in 
private pursuits, they are also stepping into 
hundreds of positions in the primary and sec- 
ondary schools of the land and raising the 
standard of education. 



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Key to State Advanced Arithmetic, by a. M. Armstrong 1 00 

New Manual of Shorthand, by a. j. Marsh Net 1 25 

Studies in Entomology, by h. m. Bland 75 

Algebraic Solutions of Equations, by Andre & Buchanan, Net 80 

Study of the Kindergarten Problem, by Fred'k iv. Burk 50 

Orthcepy and Spelling, by John W.lmes, (4 parts each) 20 

Toyon— A book of Holiday Selections, by Allie M. Felker 

Paper, 3oc. Board, 60c. Cloth 1 00 

Supplement to State History, by Harr Wagner 25 

Matka, a Tale of the Mist Islands, by David Starr Jordan 

(School ed ) 75 

Educational Questions, by w.c.Doub l 00 

Lessons in Language Work, by Belle Frazee Net 50 

WESTERN SERIES OF PAPER BOOKS 

No. 1. Songs of the Soul, by Joaquin Miller 25 

No. 2, Dr. Jones' Picnic, by Dr. S. E. Chapman. 25 

No. 3. Modern Argonaut, by Leela B. Davis 25 

No. 4. How to Celebrate Holiday Occasions— Compiled 25 

No. 5. Patriotic Quotations 25 

WESTERN LITERATURE SERIES 
No. 1. Readings from California Poets, by Edmund Russell 

Paper, 25c. Board 40 

WESTERN SERIES OF BOOKLETS 

No. 1. California and the Caiifornians, by David Starr Jordan 25 

No. 2. Love and Law, by Thos. P. Bailey 25 

No. 3. The Man Who Might Have Been, by Robert Whitaker 25 

No. 4. Chants for the Boer, by Joaquin Miller 25 

No. 5. Toil, Poems by D. F. I.eary 25 

WESTERN EDUCATIONAL HELPS 

No. 1. Civil Government Simplified, by J.J. Duvall 25 

No. 2. An Aid in the Study and Teaching of Lady of the 

Lake, Evangeline, and Merchant of Venice, by j. 

W. Graham 25 

No. 3. Grammar by the Inductive Method, by \v. C. Douh.. 25 



The Western Series of Readers 

EDITED BY HARR WAGNER 

Designed Especially for Supplementary Work in 

HISTORY AND NATURE STUDY 

In Our Public Schools 

All Fully and Beautifully Illustrated, Each Volume Contains from 
Eighteen to Twenty-Six Full-Page Pictures. 

EXTENSIVELY ADOPTED AND USED IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE PAOIFIG COAST 



VOL. I 

PACIFIC ffiSTORY STORIES 

By HARR WAGNER 

Fop Fourth and Fifth Gpades 

During the short time that this book has been on the market its 
sale has been phenomenal. It is pronounced, by all of our leading 
educators, to be excellently adapted to the work for which it was 
intended— a supplementary reader in history study in the Fourth 
and Fifth Grades. Fully two thirds of the counties in California 
have this book on their supplementary and library list. 

VOL. M 

PACIFIC NATURE STORIES 

By HARR WAGNER and DAVID S. JORDAN and others 
Fop Foupth and Fifth Gpades 

A companion volume to the above. It contains some eighteen most 
interesting and instructive sketches of our Western animal and 
vegetable life, all told in a delightfully flowing style and written by 
the greatest educators of the West. As a reading book in nature 
study it cannot be excelled. 

VOL. Ml 

NATURE STORIES OF THE NORTHWEST 

By HERBERT BASHFORD 

State librarian of Washington 

Fop Sixth and Seventh Gpades 

This book covers a more extended field than Volume II, and is not 
strictly confined to the Northwest. Among the interesting stories 
will be found those of T/^e Black Bear, The Kingfisher, The Cla?n, 
the Meadowlark, The Seals, etc., all of which are of interest to any 
pupil in the West, The illustrations are works of art and true to 
nature. 



VOL. !V- 



TALES OF DISCOVERY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 

By MARGARET GRAHAM HOOD 

Fop ThiPd and Fourth Grades 

The Tale of History could not be more charmingly told than it is in 
this volume, which is intended for the lower grades. A Third or 
Fourth Grade pupil will read it easily, and with interest. Its eight 
chapters are devoted to the early history of our great Western 
empire, and tell of characters and events, but little touched upon by 
the general school history. The child here acquires a taste that 
leads him to further research. 

VOL. V 

TALES OF OUR NEW POSSESSIONS, THE PHILIPPINES 

Written by R. VAN BERGEN 

A Thirty-Year resident of the Orient 
Author of "Story of Japan," Etc. 

Illustrated by P. N. BOERINGER 

War Artist Correspondent at Manila 
for Sau Francisco Papers 

For the Sixth, Seventh and Eighth Grades 

A timely book for the young. We employed to write this volume, 
a man whose thirtj'-year residence in the Orient made him 
thoroughly familiar with the people and their customs. Its thirty- 
eight chapters, all richly illustrated by the best artist we could secure, 
will give the pupil an excellent idea of our new country — 
a knowledge which will prove of great financial value to him. 

VOL. V! 

STORIES OF OUR MOTHER EARTH 

By HAROLD W. FAIRBANKS, Ph. D. 

Illustrated by MARY H. WELLMAN 

With 27 Full Page Illustrations. An Intensely In- 
teresting and Instructive Work on Nature Study 

For the Sixth and Seventh Grades 
Can the study of Geology be made interesting to the young? It 
certainly can when written in the style of this book. It contains 
some thirty- eight chapters, every one laden with knowledge but all 
reading like a story book. The chapters on The Yosemite Valley, 
The San Francisco Bay and The Colorado River in themselves alone 
warrant the purchase of the book. 

Complete Descriptive Circular, giving contents of each volume, 
testimonials, etc., sent on application. 



PRICES— School Edition, Bound in Board, Leather Back, Net 50 cents 

Library Edition, Boundin Cloth, Net 60 cents 

PUBLISHED BY 

THE WHIXAKER & RAY CO. 

723 MARKET STREET, SAN FRANCISCO. 



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